Human Physiology

Human Physiology is the scientific study of the functions and mechanisms of the human body, exploring the intricate chemical, physical, and biological processes that allow it to live, operate, and survive. As a cornerstone of biology, it works in tandem with anatomy; while anatomy details the body's structures, physiology explains how these components—from the molecular and cellular levels to entire organ systems—work individually and collectively to perform complex tasks. A central theme of physiology is understanding how the body maintains a stable internal environment, a concept known as homeostasis, which is critical for sustaining life and responding to both internal and external changes.

1. Introduction to Human Physiology
   1. Defining Physiology
      1. Scope of Physiological Study
      2. Relationship to Other Life Sciences
      3. Historical Development of Physiology
   2. Relationship Between Physiology and Anatomy
      1. Structure-Function Relationships
      2. Complementary Nature of Form and Function
   3. Levels of Structural Organization
      1. Chemical Level
         1. Atoms and Elements
            1. Essential Elements in the Human Body
            2. Atomic Structure and Bonding
         2. Molecules and Compounds
            1. Inorganic Compounds
            2. Organic Compounds
            3. Macromolecules
      2. Cellular Level
         1. Cell Structure and Organelles
            1. Plasma Membrane
            2. Nucleus
            3. Cytoplasm and Organelles
            4. Cytoskeleton
         2. Cell Specialization
            1. Differentiation Processes
            2. Specialized Cell Types
      3. Tissue Level
         1. Epithelial Tissue
            1. Classification by Shape
            2. Classification by Layers
            3. Functions and Locations
         2. Connective Tissue
            1. Loose Connective Tissue
            2. Dense Connective Tissue
            3. Specialized Connective Tissues
         3. Muscle Tissue
            1. Skeletal Muscle
            2. Cardiac Muscle
            3. Smooth Muscle
         4. Nervous Tissue
            1. Neurons
            2. Neuroglia
      4. Organ Level
         1. Definition and Characteristics
         2. Examples of Major Organs
         3. Organ Development
      5. Organ System Level
         1. Overview of Body Systems
         2. System Interactions
         3. Functional Integration
      6. Organismal Level
         1. Whole-Body Integration
         2. Emergent Properties
   4. Core Principles in Physiology
      1. Structure-Function Relationship
         1. Molecular Level Examples
         2. Cellular Level Examples
         3. Tissue Level Examples
         4. Organ Level Examples
      2. Energy Requirements
         1. ATP as Universal Energy Currency
         2. Energy Transformation Processes
         3. Metabolic Efficiency
      3. Information Flow and Coordination
         1. Chemical Signaling
         2. Electrical Signaling
         3. Integration of Signals
      4. Homeostasis as Central Theme
         1. Definition and Importance
         2. Dynamic Equilibrium
         3. Consequences of Homeostatic Failure
   5. Homeostasis and Control Systems
      1. Components of Feedback Systems
         1. Receptors
            1. Sensory Receptors
            2. Internal Receptors
            3. Receptor Sensitivity
         2. Control Centers
            1. Integration Functions
            2. Set Point Determination
            3. Processing Mechanisms
         3. Effectors
            1. Muscle Effectors
            2. Glandular Effectors
            3. Response Characteristics
      2. Negative Feedback Loops
         1. Mechanism of Action
         2. Examples in Body Temperature
         3. Examples in Blood Glucose
         4. Examples in Blood Pressure
         5. Stability Maintenance
      3. Positive Feedback Loops
         1. Mechanism of Action
         2. Examples in Blood Clotting
         3. Examples in Childbirth
         4. Examples in Action Potentials
         5. Amplification Effects
      4. Feedforward Control
         1. Anticipatory Mechanisms
         2. Examples in Digestion
         3. Examples in Exercise
         4. Adaptive Advantages