Human Physiology

  1. The Nervous System
    1. Organization and Structure
      1. Central Nervous System
        1. Brain Organization
          1. Cerebral Hemispheres
            1. Brainstem
              1. Cerebellum
                1. Ventricular System
                2. Spinal Cord Organization
                  1. Gray Matter
                    1. White Matter
                      1. Spinal Segments
                    2. Peripheral Nervous System
                      1. Cranial Nerves
                        1. Sensory Nerves
                          1. Motor Nerves
                            1. Mixed Nerves
                            2. Spinal Nerves
                              1. Nerve Roots
                                1. Plexuses
                                  1. Peripheral Distribution
                                  2. Ganglia
                                    1. Sensory Ganglia
                                      1. Autonomic Ganglia
                                  3. Neural Cells
                                    1. Neurons
                                      1. Neuronal Structure
                                        1. Cell Body Components
                                          1. Dendritic Architecture
                                            1. Axonal Structure
                                              1. Synaptic Terminals
                                              2. Functional Classification
                                                1. Sensory Neurons
                                                  1. Motor Neurons
                                                    1. Interneurons
                                                    2. Structural Classification
                                                      1. Multipolar Neurons
                                                        1. Bipolar Neurons
                                                          1. Unipolar Neurons
                                                        2. Glial Cells
                                                          1. CNS Glial Cells
                                                            1. Astrocytes
                                                              1. Protoplasmic Astrocytes
                                                                1. Fibrous Astrocytes
                                                                  1. Functions
                                                                  2. Oligodendrocytes
                                                                    1. Myelination
                                                                      1. Metabolic Support
                                                                      2. Microglia
                                                                        1. Immune Functions
                                                                          1. Phagocytosis
                                                                          2. Ependymal Cells
                                                                            1. CSF Production
                                                                              1. Ciliary Action
                                                                            2. PNS Glial Cells
                                                                              1. Schwann Cells
                                                                                1. Myelinating Schwann Cells
                                                                                  1. Non-myelinating Schwann Cells
                                                                                  2. Satellite Cells
                                                                                    1. Ganglionic Support
                                                                              2. Membrane Potentials and Electrical Signaling
                                                                                1. Resting Membrane Potential
                                                                                  1. Ion Distribution
                                                                                    1. Sodium Distribution
                                                                                      1. Potassium Distribution
                                                                                        1. Chloride Distribution
                                                                                          1. Protein Anions
                                                                                          2. Equilibrium Potentials
                                                                                            1. Nernst Equation
                                                                                              1. Goldman Equation
                                                                                              2. Sodium-Potassium Pump Role
                                                                                                1. Electrogenic Effects
                                                                                                  1. Concentration Maintenance
                                                                                                2. Graded Potentials
                                                                                                  1. Characteristics
                                                                                                    1. Amplitude Variation
                                                                                                      1. Decremental Spread
                                                                                                        1. Duration
                                                                                                        2. Types
                                                                                                          1. Receptor Potentials
                                                                                                            1. Synaptic Potentials
                                                                                                              1. End-Plate Potentials
                                                                                                              2. Summation
                                                                                                                1. Spatial Summation
                                                                                                                  1. Temporal Summation
                                                                                                                2. Action Potentials
                                                                                                                  1. Generation
                                                                                                                    1. Threshold
                                                                                                                      1. Voltage-Gated Channels
                                                                                                                        1. Depolarization Phase
                                                                                                                          1. Repolarization Phase
                                                                                                                            1. Hyperpolarization Phase
                                                                                                                            2. Propagation
                                                                                                                              1. Continuous Conduction
                                                                                                                                1. Saltatory Conduction
                                                                                                                                  1. Conduction Velocity Factors
                                                                                                                                  2. Properties
                                                                                                                                    1. All-or-None Principle
                                                                                                                                      1. Refractory Periods
                                                                                                                                        1. Absolute Refractory Period
                                                                                                                                          1. Relative Refractory Period
                                                                                                                                          2. Frequency Coding
                                                                                                                                      2. Synaptic Transmission
                                                                                                                                        1. Electrical Synapses
                                                                                                                                          1. Gap Junction Structure
                                                                                                                                            1. Bidirectional Transmission
                                                                                                                                              1. Synchronization Functions
                                                                                                                                              2. Chemical Synapses
                                                                                                                                                1. Synaptic Structure
                                                                                                                                                  1. Presynaptic Terminal
                                                                                                                                                    1. Synaptic Cleft
                                                                                                                                                      1. Postsynaptic Membrane
                                                                                                                                                      2. Neurotransmitter Release
                                                                                                                                                        1. Calcium-Dependent Exocytosis
                                                                                                                                                          1. Vesicle Recycling
                                                                                                                                                            1. Quantal Release
                                                                                                                                                            2. Postsynaptic Events
                                                                                                                                                              1. Receptor Binding
                                                                                                                                                                1. Ion Channel Opening
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Postsynaptic Potentials
                                                                                                                                                                    1. EPSPs
                                                                                                                                                                      1. IPSPs
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Neurotransmitters
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Acetylcholine
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Synthesis and Degradation
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Receptor Types
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Biogenic Amines
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Dopamine
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Norepinephrine
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Serotonin
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Histamine
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Amino Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Glutamate
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. GABA
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Glycine
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Neuropeptides
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Endorphins
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Substance P
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Neuropeptide Y
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Synaptic Integration
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Spatial Summation
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Multiple Input Integration
                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Temporal Summation
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Frequency-Dependent Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Synaptic Plasticity
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Short-Term Plasticity
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Long-Term Potentiation
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Long-Term Depression
                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Central Nervous System Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Brain Regions
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cerebral Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Primary Motor Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Primary Somatosensory Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Visual Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Auditory Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Association Areas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Language Areas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Diencephalon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Thalamus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Relay Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Thalamic Nuclei
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Hypothalamus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Homeostatic Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Endocrine Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Behavioral Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Epithalamus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Subthalamus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Brainstem
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Midbrain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Superior Colliculus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Inferior Colliculus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Substantia Nigra
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Pons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Respiratory Centers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Sleep Centers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Medulla Oblongata
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cardiovascular Centers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Respiratory Centers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Reflex Centers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Cerebellum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Motor Coordination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Balance and Posture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Motor Learning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Cognitive Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Spinal Cord Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Ascending Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Dorsal Column-Medial Lemniscal Pathway
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Spinothalamic Pathway
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Spinocerebellar Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Descending Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Corticospinal Tract
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Rubrospinal Tract
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Reticulospinal Tract
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vestibulospinal Tract
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Spinal Reflexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Stretch Reflex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Withdrawal Reflex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Crossed Extensor Reflex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Reciprocal Inhibition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Peripheral Nervous System Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Somatic Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Motor Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Upper Motor Neurons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Lower Motor Neurons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Motor Unit Organization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Sensory Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Sensory Receptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sensory Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Autonomic Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sympathetic Division
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Thoracolumbar Organization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Sympathetic Chain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Neurotransmitters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Norepinephrine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Epinephrine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Acetylcholine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Target Organ Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Parasympathetic Division
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Craniosacral Organization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Parasympathetic Ganglia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Neurotransmitters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Acetylcholine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Target Organ Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            3. Enteric Division
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Myenteric Plexus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Submucosal Plexus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Local Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Autonomic Integration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Dual Innervation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Antagonistic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Cooperative Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Sensory Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. General Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sensory Transduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Stimulus Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Signal Conversion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Sensory Coding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Modality Coding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Intensity Coding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Temporal Coding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Spatial Coding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Sensory Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Peripheral Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Central Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Perceptual Integration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Somatosensory System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Mechanoreceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Meissner Corpuscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pacinian Corpuscles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Merkel Disks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Ruffini Endings
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Thermoreceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cold Receptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Warm Receptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Nociceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Mechanical Nociceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Thermal Nociceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Chemical Nociceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Polymodal Nociceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Proprioceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Muscle Spindles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Golgi Tendon Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Joint Receptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Special Senses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Eye Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cornea
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Retina
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Vitreous Humor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Phototransduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Rod Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cone Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Visual Pigments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Visual Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Retinal Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Visual Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Visual Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Accommodation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pupillary Reflexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Eye Movements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Hearing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Ear Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Outer Ear
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Middle Ear
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Inner Ear
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Sound Transduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cochlear Mechanics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Hair Cell Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Frequency Coding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Auditory Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Cochlear Nuclei
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Superior Olive
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Auditory Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Vestibular System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Vestibular Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Semicircular Canals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Otolith Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Balance Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Angular Acceleration Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Linear Acceleration Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Chemical Senses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Taste
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Taste Bud Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Taste Transduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Taste Qualities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Taste Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Smell
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Olfactory Epithelium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Olfactory Transduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Olfactory Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Olfactory Pathways

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Go to top

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      4. The Endocrine System