Human Physiology

  1. The Digestive System
    1. Overview of Digestive Functions
      1. Mechanical Digestion
        1. Mastication
          1. Gastric Churning
            1. Segmentation
              1. Peristalsis
              2. Chemical Digestion
                1. Enzymatic Breakdown
                  1. Acid Hydrolysis
                    1. Bile Emulsification
                    2. Absorption Processes
                      1. Nutrient Uptake
                        1. Water Absorption
                          1. Electrolyte Absorption
                          2. Motility Patterns
                            1. Propulsive Movements
                              1. Mixing Movements
                                1. Sphincter Control
                              2. Gastrointestinal Tract Structure
                                1. Wall Layers
                                  1. Mucosa
                                    1. Epithelium
                                      1. Lamina Propria
                                        1. Muscularis Mucosae
                                        2. Submucosa
                                          1. Connective Tissue
                                            1. Blood Vessels
                                              1. Submucosal Plexus
                                              2. Muscularis Externa
                                                1. Circular Muscle
                                                  1. Longitudinal Muscle
                                                    1. Myenteric Plexus
                                                    2. Serosa
                                                      1. Visceral Peritoneum
                                                    3. Regional Specializations
                                                      1. Structural Adaptations
                                                        1. Functional Modifications
                                                      2. Neural and Hormonal Control
                                                        1. Enteric Nervous System
                                                          1. Myenteric Plexus
                                                            1. Motor Control
                                                              1. Peristalsis Coordination
                                                              2. Submucosal Plexus
                                                                1. Secretory Control
                                                                  1. Local Reflexes
                                                                2. Autonomic Control
                                                                  1. Sympathetic Effects
                                                                    1. Inhibitory Actions
                                                                      1. Vasoconstriction
                                                                      2. Parasympathetic Effects
                                                                        1. Stimulatory Actions
                                                                          1. Secretion Enhancement
                                                                        2. Gastrointestinal Hormones
                                                                          1. Gastrin
                                                                            1. Gastric Acid Stimulation
                                                                              1. Gastric Motility
                                                                              2. Cholecystokinin
                                                                                1. Pancreatic Enzyme Release
                                                                                  1. Gallbladder Contraction
                                                                                  2. Secretin
                                                                                    1. Pancreatic Bicarbonate
                                                                                      1. Gastric Acid Inhibition
                                                                                      2. Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Peptide
                                                                                        1. Insulin Release
                                                                                          1. Gastric Inhibition
                                                                                      3. Regional Digestive Physiology
                                                                                        1. Oral Cavity and Pharynx
                                                                                          1. Salivary Secretion
                                                                                            1. Salivary Glands
                                                                                              1. Parotid Glands
                                                                                                1. Submandibular Glands
                                                                                                  1. Sublingual Glands
                                                                                                  2. Saliva Composition
                                                                                                    1. Water and Electrolytes
                                                                                                      1. Enzymes
                                                                                                        1. Antimicrobial Factors
                                                                                                        2. Salivary Control
                                                                                                          1. Neural Regulation
                                                                                                            1. Reflex Mechanisms
                                                                                                          2. Mastication
                                                                                                            1. Mechanical Breakdown
                                                                                                              1. Bolus Formation
                                                                                                              2. Swallowing
                                                                                                                1. Oral Phase
                                                                                                                  1. Pharyngeal Phase
                                                                                                                    1. Esophageal Phase
                                                                                                                  2. Esophagus
                                                                                                                    1. Esophageal Motility
                                                                                                                      1. Primary Peristalsis
                                                                                                                        1. Secondary Peristalsis
                                                                                                                        2. Sphincter Function
                                                                                                                          1. Upper Esophageal Sphincter
                                                                                                                            1. Lower Esophageal Sphincter
                                                                                                                            2. Protective Mechanisms
                                                                                                                              1. Mucus Secretion
                                                                                                                                1. Bicarbonate Production
                                                                                                                              2. Stomach
                                                                                                                                1. Gastric Secretion
                                                                                                                                  1. Gastric Juice Composition
                                                                                                                                    1. Hydrochloric Acid
                                                                                                                                      1. Pepsinogen
                                                                                                                                        1. Intrinsic Factor
                                                                                                                                          1. Mucus
                                                                                                                                          2. Secretory Cells
                                                                                                                                            1. Parietal Cells
                                                                                                                                              1. Chief Cells
                                                                                                                                                1. Mucous Cells
                                                                                                                                                  1. G Cells
                                                                                                                                                  2. Phases of Secretion
                                                                                                                                                    1. Cephalic Phase
                                                                                                                                                      1. Gastric Phase
                                                                                                                                                        1. Intestinal Phase
                                                                                                                                                      2. Gastric Motility
                                                                                                                                                        1. Receptive Relaxation
                                                                                                                                                          1. Gastric Mixing
                                                                                                                                                            1. Gastric Emptying
                                                                                                                                                              1. Migrating Motor Complex
                                                                                                                                                              2. Gastric Protection
                                                                                                                                                                1. Mucus-Bicarbonate Barrier
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Prostaglandin Effects
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Epithelial Renewal
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Small Intestine
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Intestinal Secretions
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Intestinal Juice
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Brush Border Enzymes
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Mucus Production
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Intestinal Motility
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Segmentation
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Peristalsis
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Migrating Motor Complex
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Absorption Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Villus Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Microvilli
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Transport Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Active Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Facilitated Diffusion
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Simple Diffusion
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Large Intestine
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Colonic Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Water Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Electrolyte Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Bacterial Fermentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Colonic Motility
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Haustral Contractions
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Mass Movements
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Defecation Reflex
                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Microbiome Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Vitamin Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Short-Chain Fatty Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Immune Interactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Accessory Organ Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Liver
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Bile Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bile Acid Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Bile Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Enterohepatic Circulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Metabolic Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Carbohydrate Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lipid Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Protein Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Drug Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Storage Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Glycogen Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Vitamin Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Mineral Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Synthetic Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Plasma Protein Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Clotting Factor Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Gallbladder
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Bile Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Concentration Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Storage Capacity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Bile Release
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. CCK Stimulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Gallbladder Contraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sphincter of Oddi
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Pancreas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Exocrine Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pancreatic Juice Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Digestive Enzymes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Proteases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lipases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Amylases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Nucleases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Bicarbonate Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          3. Endocrine Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Insulin Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Glucagon Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Somatostatin Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Nutrient Digestion and Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Carbohydrate Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Starch Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Salivary Amylase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pancreatic Amylase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Disaccharide Hydrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Brush Border Enzymes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Lactase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Sucrase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Maltase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Monosaccharide Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Glucose Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Fructose Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Galactose Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Protein Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Protein Denaturation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Gastric Acid Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Proteolytic Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Pepsin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pancreatic Proteases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Brush Border Peptidases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Amino Acid Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Transport Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Peptide Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Lipid Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Fat Emulsification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Bile Acid Functions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Micelle Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Lipolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pancreatic Lipase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Colipase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Fat Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Fatty Acid Uptake
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Chylomicron Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lymphatic Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Vitamin and Mineral Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Micelle-Dependent Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Water-Soluble Vitamins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Specific Transporters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. B12-Intrinsic Factor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Mineral Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Iron Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Calcium Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Other Minerals

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  10. The Immune System