Human Physiology

4.

The Endocrine System

4.1.

Principles of Endocrine Function

4.1.1.

Hormone Classification

4.1.1.1.

Chemical Structure

4.1.1.1.1.

Peptide Hormones

4.1.1.1.2.

Steroid Hormones

4.1.1.1.3.

Amino Acid Derivatives

4.1.1.2.

Solubility Properties

4.1.1.2.1.

Water-Soluble Hormones

4.1.1.2.2.

Lipid-Soluble Hormones

4.1.1.3.

Mechanism of Action

4.1.1.3.1.

Membrane Receptor Hormones

4.1.1.3.2.

Intracellular Receptor Hormones

4.1.2.

Hormone Transport

4.1.2.1.

4.1.2.1.1.

Bioavailability

4.1.2.1.2.

4.1.2.2.

4.1.2.2.1.

Binding Proteins

4.1.2.2.2.

Transport Functions

4.1.2.2.3.

Storage Functions

4.1.3.

Hormone Action Mechanisms

4.1.3.1.

Membrane Receptor Pathways

4.1.3.1.1.

G Protein-Coupled Receptors

4.1.3.1.2.

Tyrosine Kinase Receptors

4.1.3.1.3.

Ion Channel Receptors

4.1.3.2.

Intracellular Receptor Pathways

4.1.3.2.1.

Nuclear Receptors

4.1.3.2.2.

Gene Expression Regulation

4.1.3.2.3.

Protein Synthesis

4.1.4.

Hormone Regulation

4.1.4.1.

Synthesis and Release

4.1.4.1.1.

Transcriptional Control

4.1.4.1.2.

Post-translational Modification

4.1.4.1.3.

Secretory Mechanisms

4.1.4.2.

Feedback Control

4.1.4.2.1.

Negative Feedback

4.1.4.2.2.

Positive Feedback

4.1.4.2.3.

Feedforward Control

4.2.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

4.2.1.

Hypothalamic Control

4.2.1.1.

Neurosecretory Cells

4.2.1.2.

Hypothalamic Hormones

4.2.1.2.1.

Releasing Hormones

4.2.1.2.2.

Inhibiting Hormones

4.2.1.3.

Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Portal System

4.2.1.3.1.

Vascular Connections

4.2.1.3.2.

Hormone Transport

4.2.2.

Posterior Pituitary

4.2.2.1.

Antidiuretic Hormone

4.2.2.1.1.

Water Balance Regulation

4.2.2.1.2.

Osmoreceptor Control

4.2.2.1.3.

Volume Receptor Control

4.2.2.2.

4.2.2.2.1.

Uterine Contraction

4.2.2.2.2.

4.2.2.2.3.

4.2.3.

Anterior Pituitary

4.2.3.1.

4.2.3.1.1.

Growth Promotion

4.2.3.1.2.

Metabolic Effects

4.2.3.1.3.

IGF-1 Mediation

4.2.3.2.

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone

4.2.3.2.1.

Thyroid Regulation

4.2.3.2.2.

Feedback Control

4.2.3.3.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

4.2.3.3.1.

Adrenal Cortex Stimulation

4.2.3.3.2.

Stress Response

4.2.3.4.

4.2.3.4.1.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone

4.2.3.4.2.

Luteinizing Hormone

4.2.3.4.3.

Reproductive Control

4.2.3.5.

4.2.3.5.1.

Mammary Gland Development

4.2.3.5.2.

Milk Production

4.2.3.5.3.

Reproductive Effects

4.3.

Major Endocrine Glands

4.3.1.

4.3.1.1.

Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

4.3.1.1.1.

4.3.1.1.2.

Thyroglobulin Processing

4.3.1.1.3.

T3 and T4 Production

4.3.1.2.

Thyroid Hormone Effects

4.3.1.2.1.

4.3.1.2.2.

Growth and Development

4.3.1.2.3.

Cardiovascular Effects

4.3.1.2.4.

Nervous System Effects

4.3.1.3.

4.3.1.3.1.

Calcium Regulation

4.3.1.3.2.

4.3.2.

Parathyroid Glands

4.3.2.1.

Parathyroid Hormone

4.3.2.1.1.

Calcium Homeostasis

4.3.2.1.2.

Bone Remodeling

4.3.2.1.3.

4.3.2.1.4.

Intestinal Effects

4.3.3.

4.3.3.1.

4.3.3.1.1.

Mineralocorticoids

4.3.3.1.1.1.

4.3.3.1.1.2.

4.3.3.1.1.3.

Potassium Balance

4.3.3.1.2.

Glucocorticoids

4.3.3.1.2.1.

4.3.3.1.2.2.

Stress Response

4.3.3.1.2.3.

Metabolic Effects

4.3.3.1.2.4.

Anti-inflammatory Effects

4.3.3.1.3.

Adrenal Androgens

4.3.3.1.3.1.

4.3.3.1.3.2.

Androstenedione

4.3.3.2.

Adrenal Medulla

4.3.3.2.1.

Catecholamine Synthesis

4.3.3.2.2.

Epinephrine Effects

4.3.3.2.3.

Norepinephrine Effects

4.3.3.2.4.

Sympathetic Integration

4.3.4.

Pancreatic Islets

4.3.4.1.

4.3.4.1.1.

Glucose Homeostasis

4.3.4.1.2.

Anabolic Effects

4.3.4.1.3.

Cellular Uptake

4.3.4.2.

4.3.4.2.1.

Glucose Production

4.3.4.2.2.

Catabolic Effects

4.3.4.2.3.

Counter-regulatory Actions

4.3.4.3.

4.3.4.3.1.

Paracrine Inhibition

4.3.4.3.2.

Growth Hormone Inhibition

4.3.4.4.

Pancreatic Polypeptide

4.3.4.4.1.

Digestive Regulation

4.3.5.

4.3.5.1.

4.3.5.1.1.

Circadian Rhythms

4.3.5.1.2.

Sleep Regulation

4.3.5.1.3.

Seasonal Effects

4.3.6.

4.3.6.1.

Ovarian Hormones

4.3.6.1.1.

4.3.6.1.1.1.

4.3.6.1.1.2.

4.3.6.1.1.3.

4.3.6.1.2.

4.3.6.1.2.1.

Menstrual Cycle

4.3.6.1.2.2.

Pregnancy Maintenance

4.3.6.1.3.

4.3.6.1.4.

4.3.6.2.

Testicular Hormones

4.3.6.2.1.

4.3.6.2.1.1.

Male Development

4.3.6.2.1.2.

Spermatogenesis

4.3.6.2.1.3.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

4.3.6.2.2.

4.3.6.2.3.

Anti-Müllerian Hormone

4.4.

Endocrine Integration

4.4.1.

Circadian Rhythms

4.4.1.1.

Biological Clocks

4.4.1.2.

Hormone Cycling

4.4.1.3.

Environmental Synchronization

4.4.2.

Stress Response

4.4.2.1.

Acute Stress Response

4.4.2.2.

Chronic Stress Adaptation

4.4.2.3.

HPA Axis Activation

4.4.3.

Growth and Development

4.4.3.1.

Prenatal Development

4.4.3.2.

Postnatal Growth

4.4.3.3.

Pubertal Changes

4.4.3.4.

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