Human Physiology

  1. The Muscular System
    1. Muscle Tissue Types
      1. Skeletal Muscle
        1. Structural Characteristics
          1. Striated Appearance
            1. Multinucleated Cells
              1. Voluntary Control
              2. Functional Properties
                1. Contractility
                  1. Excitability
                    1. Extensibility
                      1. Elasticity
                    2. Cardiac Muscle
                      1. Structural Characteristics
                        1. Striated Appearance
                          1. Intercalated Discs
                            1. Single Nuclei
                            2. Functional Properties
                              1. Involuntary Control
                                1. Rhythmic Contraction
                                  1. Autorhythmicity
                                2. Smooth Muscle
                                  1. Structural Characteristics
                                    1. Non-striated Appearance
                                      1. Single Nuclei
                                        1. Spindle-shaped Cells
                                        2. Functional Properties
                                          1. Involuntary Control
                                            1. Slow Contraction
                                              1. Sustained Tension
                                          2. Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function
                                            1. Muscle Fiber Organization
                                              1. Muscle Fascicles
                                                1. Individual Muscle Fibers
                                                  1. Connective Tissue Layers
                                                    1. Epimysium
                                                      1. Perimysium
                                                        1. Endomysium
                                                      2. Microscopic Anatomy
                                                        1. Sarcolemma
                                                          1. T-tubule System
                                                            1. Membrane Properties
                                                            2. Sarcoplasm
                                                              1. Organelle Distribution
                                                                1. Metabolic Components
                                                                2. Myofibrils
                                                                  1. Sarcomere Structure
                                                                    1. Contractile Proteins
                                                                    2. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
                                                                      1. Calcium Storage
                                                                        1. Calcium Release
                                                                          1. Calcium Reuptake
                                                                        2. Contractile Proteins
                                                                          1. Thick Filaments
                                                                            1. Myosin Structure
                                                                              1. Myosin Heads
                                                                                1. Cross-Bridge Formation
                                                                                2. Thin Filaments
                                                                                  1. Actin Structure
                                                                                    1. Tropomyosin
                                                                                      1. Troponin Complex
                                                                                      2. Regulatory Proteins
                                                                                        1. Troponin C
                                                                                          1. Troponin I
                                                                                            1. Troponin T
                                                                                          2. Sliding Filament Mechanism
                                                                                            1. Cross-Bridge Cycle
                                                                                              1. Binding
                                                                                                1. Power Stroke
                                                                                                  1. Release
                                                                                                    1. Reset
                                                                                                    2. Role of ATP
                                                                                                      1. Energy for Cross-Bridge Cycling
                                                                                                        1. Myosin-ATPase Activity
                                                                                                        2. Role of Calcium
                                                                                                          1. Troponin Binding
                                                                                                            1. Conformational Changes
                                                                                                              1. Myosin Binding Site Exposure
                                                                                                          2. Muscle Contraction Mechanics
                                                                                                            1. Excitation-Contraction Coupling
                                                                                                              1. Action Potential Propagation
                                                                                                                1. Sarcolemma Depolarization
                                                                                                                  1. T-tubule Conduction
                                                                                                                  2. Calcium Release
                                                                                                                    1. Dihydropyridine Receptors
                                                                                                                      1. Ryanodine Receptors
                                                                                                                        1. Calcium-Induced Calcium Release
                                                                                                                        2. Calcium Reuptake
                                                                                                                          1. SERCA Pumps
                                                                                                                            1. Relaxation Process
                                                                                                                          2. Neuromuscular Junction
                                                                                                                            1. Presynaptic Events
                                                                                                                              1. Action Potential Arrival
                                                                                                                                1. Calcium Influx
                                                                                                                                  1. Acetylcholine Release
                                                                                                                                  2. Synaptic Transmission
                                                                                                                                    1. Acetylcholine Diffusion
                                                                                                                                      1. Receptor Binding
                                                                                                                                        1. End-Plate Potential
                                                                                                                                        2. Postsynaptic Events
                                                                                                                                          1. Sodium Influx
                                                                                                                                            1. Depolarization
                                                                                                                                              1. Action Potential Generation
                                                                                                                                              2. Termination
                                                                                                                                                1. Acetylcholinesterase
                                                                                                                                                  1. Acetylcholine Breakdown
                                                                                                                                                2. Motor Unit Function
                                                                                                                                                  1. Motor Unit Composition
                                                                                                                                                    1. Motor Neuron
                                                                                                                                                      1. Muscle Fibers
                                                                                                                                                      2. Motor Unit Types
                                                                                                                                                        1. Slow-Twitch Units
                                                                                                                                                          1. Fast-Twitch Units
                                                                                                                                                          2. Recruitment Patterns
                                                                                                                                                            1. Size Principle
                                                                                                                                                              1. Force Gradation
                                                                                                                                                            2. Muscle Contraction Types
                                                                                                                                                              1. Twitch Contraction
                                                                                                                                                                1. Latent Period
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Contraction Phase
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Relaxation Phase
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Summation
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Wave Summation
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Incomplete Tetanus
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Complete Tetanus
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Length-Tension Relationship
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Optimal Length
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Active Tension
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Passive Tension
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Force-Velocity Relationship
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Concentric Contractions
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Eccentric Contractions
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Isometric Contractions
                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Muscle Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Energy Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Phosphocreatine System
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Immediate Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Creatine Kinase
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. High-Intensity Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Glycolytic System
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Anaerobic Glycolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Lactate Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Short-Duration Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Oxidative System
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Aerobic Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mitochondrial Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Endurance Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Muscle Fiber Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Type I Fibers
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Slow-Twitch
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Oxidative Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Fatigue Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Type IIa Fibers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Fast-Twitch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Oxidative-Glycolytic
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Moderate Fatigue Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Type IIx Fibers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Fast-Twitch
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Glycolytic Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Rapid Fatigue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Muscle Fatigue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Central Fatigue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Neural Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Motivation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Peripheral Fatigue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Metabolic Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Ion Imbalances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Substrate Depletion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Recovery Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Phosphocreatine Resynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lactate Removal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Glycogen Replenishment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Protein Repair
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Smooth Muscle Physiology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Smooth Muscle Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cell Organization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Single-Unit Smooth Muscle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Multi-Unit Smooth Muscle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Contractile Apparatus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Actin and Myosin Arrangement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Dense Bodies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Intermediate Filaments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Contraction Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Calcium Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Extracellular Calcium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Myosin Light Chain Phosphorylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Myosin Light Chain Kinase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Calmodulin Activation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Cross-Bridge Cycling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Latch Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Energy Efficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Regulation of Contraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Neural Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Autonomic Innervation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Neurotransmitter Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Hormonal Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Circulating Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Local Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Mechanical Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Stretch-Activated Channels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Myogenic Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Chemical Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. pH Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Oxygen Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Metabolites

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              4. The Endocrine System

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              6. The Cardiovascular System