Neurology

6.

Epilepsy and Seizure Disorders

6.1.

6.1.1.

6.1.1.1.

6.1.1.2.

6.1.1.3.

Epilepsy Syndrome

6.1.1.4.

Status Epilepticus

6.1.2.

6.1.2.1.

Incidence and Prevalence

6.1.2.2.

Age Distribution

6.1.2.3.

Geographic Variations

6.1.3.

6.1.3.1.

Genetic Factors

6.1.3.2.

Structural Abnormalities

6.1.3.3.

Metabolic Causes

6.1.3.4.

Infectious Causes

6.1.3.5.

6.2.

Seizure Classification

6.2.1.

Focal Onset Seizures

6.2.1.1.

Aware Focal Seizures

6.2.1.1.1.

6.2.1.1.1.1.

6.2.1.1.1.2.

6.2.1.1.1.3.

6.2.1.1.1.4.

Epileptic Spasms

6.2.1.1.1.5.

6.2.1.1.1.6.

6.2.1.1.1.7.

6.2.1.1.2.

Non-Motor Onset

6.2.1.1.2.1.

6.2.1.1.2.2.

Behavior Arrest

6.2.1.1.2.3.

6.2.1.1.2.4.

6.2.1.1.2.5.

6.2.1.2.

Impaired Awareness Focal Seizures

6.2.1.2.1.

6.2.1.2.2.

Non-Motor Onset

6.2.1.3.

Focal to Bilateral Tonic-Clonic Seizures

6.2.2.

Generalized Onset Seizures

6.2.2.1.

6.2.2.1.1.

Tonic-Clonic Seizures

6.2.2.1.2.

Clonic Seizures

6.2.2.1.3.

6.2.2.1.4.

Myoclonic Seizures

6.2.2.1.5.

Myoclonic-Tonic-Clonic Seizures

6.2.2.1.6.

Myoclonic-Atonic Seizures

6.2.2.1.7.

Atonic Seizures

6.2.2.1.8.

Epileptic Spasms

6.2.2.2.

Non-Motor Seizures

6.2.2.2.1.

Absence Seizures

6.2.2.2.1.1.

Typical Absence

6.2.2.2.1.2.

Atypical Absence

6.2.2.2.1.3.

Myoclonic Absence

6.2.2.2.1.4.

Eyelid Myoclonia

6.2.3.

Unknown Onset Seizures

6.2.3.1.

6.2.3.2.

Non-Motor Seizures

6.2.3.3.

Unclassified Seizures

6.3.

Epilepsy Syndromes

6.3.1.

Neonatal and Infantile Syndromes

6.3.1.1.

Benign Familial Neonatal Epilepsy

6.3.1.2.

Early Myoclonic Encephalopathy

6.3.1.3.

Ohtahara Syndrome

6.3.1.4.

6.3.1.5.

Dravet Syndrome

6.3.2.

Childhood Syndromes

6.3.2.1.

Childhood Absence Epilepsy

6.3.2.2.

Benign Epilepsy with Centrotemporal Spikes

6.3.2.3.

Panayiotopoulos Syndrome

6.3.2.4.

Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome

6.3.2.5.

Landau-Kleffner Syndrome

6.3.2.6.

Continuous Spike-Wave in Sleep

6.3.3.

Adolescent and Adult Syndromes

6.3.3.1.

Juvenile Absence Epilepsy

6.3.3.2.

Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy

6.3.3.3.

Epilepsy with Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures Alone

6.3.3.4.

Progressive Myoclonus Epilepsies

6.3.3.5.

Autosomal Dominant Nocturnal Frontal Lobe Epilepsy

6.3.4.

Structural/Metabolic Syndromes

6.3.4.1.

Temporal Lobe Epilepsy

6.3.4.1.1.

Mesial Temporal Sclerosis

6.3.4.1.2.

Lateral Temporal Epilepsy

6.3.4.2.

Frontal Lobe Epilepsy

6.3.4.3.

Parietal Lobe Epilepsy

6.3.4.4.

Occipital Lobe Epilepsy

6.4.

Pathophysiology

6.4.1.

Cellular Mechanisms

6.4.1.1.

Neuronal Hyperexcitability

6.4.1.2.

Ion Channel Dysfunction

6.4.1.3.

Neurotransmitter Imbalance

6.4.1.4.

Synaptic Plasticity

6.4.2.

Network Mechanisms

6.4.2.1.

Synchronization

6.4.2.2.

6.4.2.3.

6.4.3.

Epileptogenesis

6.4.3.1.

Acute Symptomatic Seizures

6.4.3.2.

6.4.3.3.

Chronic Epilepsy

6.4.3.4.

6.5.

Diagnosis and Evaluation

6.5.1.

Clinical History

6.5.1.1.

Seizure Description

6.5.1.2.

Precipitating Factors

6.5.1.3.

6.5.1.4.

Postictal State

6.5.1.5.

6.5.1.6.

Developmental History

6.5.2.

Physical Examination

6.5.2.1.

General Examination

6.5.2.2.

Neurological Examination

6.5.2.3.

Skin Examination

6.5.3.

Electroencephalography

6.5.3.1.

6.5.3.2.

Sleep-Deprived EEG

6.5.3.3.

6.5.3.4.

Video-EEG Monitoring

6.5.3.5.

Interictal Findings

6.5.3.6.

6.5.4.

6.5.4.1.

6.5.4.2.

Structural Abnormalities

6.5.4.3.

Functional Imaging

6.5.4.3.1.

6.5.4.3.2.

6.5.4.3.3.

6.5.5.

Laboratory Studies

6.5.5.1.

Routine Blood Tests

6.5.5.2.

Genetic Testing

6.5.5.3.

Metabolic Studies

6.5.6.

Differential Diagnosis

6.5.6.1.

Psychogenic Non-Epileptic Seizures

6.5.6.2.

6.5.6.3.

Movement Disorders

6.5.6.4.

Sleep Disorders

6.5.6.5.

6.5.6.6.

Psychiatric Conditions

6.6.

6.6.1.

Anti-Seizure Medications

6.6.1.1.

Mechanisms of Action

6.6.1.1.1.

Sodium Channel Blockers

6.6.1.1.2.

Calcium Channel Blockers

6.6.1.1.3.

6.6.1.1.4.

Glutamate Inhibitors

6.6.1.1.5.

Multiple Mechanisms

6.6.1.2.

First-Generation ASMs

6.6.1.2.1.

6.6.1.2.2.

6.6.1.2.3.

6.6.1.2.4.

6.6.1.2.5.

6.6.1.2.6.

6.6.1.3.

Second-Generation ASMs

6.6.1.3.1.

6.6.1.3.2.

6.6.1.3.3.

6.6.1.3.4.

6.6.1.3.5.

6.6.1.3.6.

6.6.1.3.7.

6.6.1.3.8.

6.6.1.3.9.

6.6.1.3.10.

6.6.1.4.

Third-Generation ASMs

6.6.1.4.1.

6.6.1.4.2.

Eslicarbazepine

6.6.1.4.3.

6.6.1.4.4.

6.6.1.4.5.

6.6.1.5.

6.6.1.5.1.

Seizure Type Considerations

6.6.1.5.2.

Syndrome Considerations

6.6.1.5.3.

Patient Factors

6.6.1.5.4.

Side Effect Profiles

6.6.1.6.

6.6.1.6.1.

Efficacy Assessment

6.6.1.6.2.

Side Effect Monitoring

6.6.1.6.3.

Drug Level Monitoring

6.6.1.6.4.

Drug Interactions

6.6.2.

Surgical Treatment

6.6.2.1.

Presurgical Evaluation

6.6.2.1.1.

Seizure Localization

6.6.2.1.2.

Language Mapping

6.6.2.1.3.

Memory Assessment

6.6.2.1.4.

Psychiatric Evaluation

6.6.2.2.

Surgical Procedures

6.6.2.2.1.

Temporal Lobectomy

6.6.2.2.2.

Extratemporal Resections

6.6.2.2.3.

Hemispherectomy

6.6.2.2.4.

Corpus Callosotomy

6.6.2.2.5.

Multiple Subpial Transections

6.6.2.3.

6.6.2.3.1.

Seizure Freedom Rates

6.6.2.3.2.

6.6.2.3.3.

Quality of Life

6.6.3.

Neuromodulation

6.6.3.1.

Vagus Nerve Stimulation

6.6.3.1.1.

6.6.3.1.2.

6.6.3.1.3.

6.6.3.1.4.

6.6.3.2.

Responsive Neurostimulation

6.6.3.2.1.

6.6.3.2.2.

Patient Selection

6.6.3.2.3.

6.6.3.3.

Deep Brain Stimulation

6.6.3.3.1.

6.6.3.3.2.

6.6.3.3.3.

6.6.4.

6.6.4.1.

6.6.4.2.

6.6.4.3.

6.6.4.4.

6.6.4.5.

6.7.

Status Epilepticus

6.7.1.

Definition and Classification

6.7.1.1.

Convulsive Status Epilepticus

6.7.1.2.

Non-Convulsive Status Epilepticus

6.7.1.3.

Refractory Status Epilepticus

6.7.1.4.

Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus

6.7.2.

Pathophysiology

6.7.2.1.

Failure of Seizure Termination

6.7.2.2.

Pharmacoresistance

6.7.2.3.

Neuronal Injury

6.7.3.

Clinical Features

6.7.3.1.

6.7.3.2.

Non-Convulsive SE

6.7.3.3.

6.7.4.

Emergency Management

6.7.4.1.

Initial Stabilization

6.7.4.2.

First-Line Treatment

6.7.4.2.1.

Benzodiazepines

6.7.4.3.

Second-Line Treatment

6.7.4.3.1.

6.7.4.3.2.

6.7.4.3.3.

6.7.4.4.

Third-Line Treatment

6.7.4.4.1.

Anesthetic Agents

6.7.4.4.2.

Intensive Care Management

6.7.5.

6.7.5.1.

Systemic Complications

6.7.5.2.

Neurological Complications

6.7.5.3.

Long-Term Sequelae

6.8.

Special Populations

6.8.1.

Women with Epilepsy

6.8.1.1.

Hormonal Effects

6.8.1.2.

6.8.1.3.

Pregnancy Planning

6.8.1.4.

Pregnancy Management

6.8.1.5.

6.8.2.

Elderly Patients

6.8.2.1.

Age-Related Changes

6.8.2.2.

6.8.2.3.

6.8.3.

Pediatric Epilepsy

6.8.3.1.

Age-Specific Syndromes

6.8.3.2.

Developmental Considerations

6.8.3.3.

Educational Issues

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