Animal Physiology

  1. Osmoregulation and Excretion
    1. Water and Solute Balance
      1. Osmotic Challenges
        1. Marine Environments
          1. Hyperosmotic Stress
            1. Water Loss Prevention
              1. Salt Excretion
              2. Freshwater Environments
                1. Hypoosmotic Stress
                  1. Water Influx Management
                    1. Salt Retention
                    2. Terrestrial Environments
                      1. Desiccation Stress
                        1. Water Conservation
                      2. Osmoregulatory Strategies
                        1. Osmoconformers
                          1. Osmotic Equilibrium
                            1. Cellular Adaptations
                            2. Osmoregulators
                              1. Active Regulation
                                1. Energy Costs
                              2. Ion Regulation
                                1. Sodium Balance
                                  1. Potassium Balance
                                    1. Chloride Balance
                                      1. Calcium Balance
                                    2. Nitrogenous Waste Products
                                      1. Ammonia
                                        1. High Toxicity
                                          1. High Water Requirement
                                            1. Aquatic Animals
                                            2. Urea
                                              1. Moderate Toxicity
                                                1. Moderate Water Requirement
                                                  1. Terrestrial Animals
                                                  2. Uric Acid
                                                    1. Low Toxicity
                                                      1. Low Water Requirement
                                                        1. Birds and Reptiles
                                                        2. Metabolic Costs
                                                          1. Energy Requirements
                                                            1. Synthesis Pathways
                                                          2. Excretory System Types
                                                            1. Protonephridia
                                                              1. Flame Cells
                                                                1. Filtration Mechanism
                                                                  1. Flatworm Examples
                                                                  2. Metanephridia
                                                                    1. Nephrostomes
                                                                      1. Tubular Structure
                                                                        1. Annelid Examples
                                                                        2. Malpighian Tubules
                                                                          1. Insect Excretion
                                                                            1. Active Transport
                                                                              1. Water Conservation
                                                                              2. Vertebrate Kidneys
                                                                                1. Nephron Structure
                                                                                  1. Renal Corpuscle
                                                                                    1. Glomerulus
                                                                                      1. Bowman's Capsule
                                                                                      2. Renal Tubule
                                                                                        1. Proximal Tubule
                                                                                          1. Loop of Henle
                                                                                            1. Distal Tubule
                                                                                              1. Collecting Duct
                                                                                            2. Kidney Functions
                                                                                              1. Filtration
                                                                                                1. Glomerular Filtration Rate
                                                                                                  1. Filtration Pressure
                                                                                                  2. Reabsorption
                                                                                                    1. Selective Reabsorption
                                                                                                      1. Active Transport
                                                                                                        1. Passive Transport
                                                                                                        2. Secretion
                                                                                                          1. Active Secretion
                                                                                                            1. Waste Elimination
                                                                                                            2. Concentration
                                                                                                              1. Countercurrent Multiplier
                                                                                                                1. Urine Concentration
                                                                                                          2. Hormonal Control of Kidney Function
                                                                                                            1. Antidiuretic Hormone
                                                                                                              1. Water Reabsorption
                                                                                                                1. Osmoreceptor Control
                                                                                                                  1. Aquaporin Regulation
                                                                                                                  2. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
                                                                                                                    1. Blood Pressure Regulation
                                                                                                                      1. Sodium Retention
                                                                                                                        1. Potassium Excretion
                                                                                                                        2. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide
                                                                                                                          1. Sodium Excretion
                                                                                                                            1. Blood Volume Regulation
                                                                                                                            2. Parathyroid Hormone
                                                                                                                              1. Calcium Reabsorption
                                                                                                                                1. Phosphate Excretion

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                                                                                                                            8. Nutrition and Digestion

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                                                                                                                            10. Thermoregulation