Animal Physiology

  1. Sensory Systems
    1. Principles of Sensory Reception
      1. Sensory Transduction
        1. Stimulus Energy Conversion
          1. Receptor Proteins
            1. Signal Amplification
            2. Receptor Potentials
              1. Graded Nature
                1. Stimulus Intensity Coding
                2. Sensory Adaptation
                  1. Tonic Receptors
                    1. Phasic Receptors
                      1. Mechanisms of Adaptation
                      2. Sensory Coding
                        1. Frequency Coding
                          1. Population Coding
                            1. Labeled Line Principle
                          2. Classification of Sensory Receptors
                            1. By Stimulus Type
                              1. Mechanoreceptors
                                1. Touch and Pressure
                                  1. Hearing
                                    1. Balance and Equilibrium
                                      1. Proprioception
                                      2. Chemoreceptors
                                        1. Taste (Gustation)
                                          1. Smell (Olfaction)
                                            1. Internal Chemical Sensing
                                            2. Photoreceptors
                                              1. Vision
                                                1. Circadian Photoreception
                                                2. Thermoreceptors
                                                  1. Heat Detection
                                                    1. Cold Detection
                                                    2. Nociceptors
                                                      1. Pain Detection
                                                        1. Tissue Damage Sensing
                                                        2. Electroreceptors
                                                          1. Electric Field Detection
                                                            1. Bioelectric Sensing
                                                            2. Magnetoreceptors
                                                              1. Magnetic Field Detection
                                                            3. By Location
                                                              1. Exteroceptors
                                                                1. Interoceptors
                                                                  1. Proprioceptors
                                                                2. Somatosensory System
                                                                  1. Touch and Pressure Sensation
                                                                    1. Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors
                                                                      1. Meissner's Corpuscles
                                                                        1. Pacinian Corpuscles
                                                                          1. Merkel's Disks
                                                                            1. Ruffini Endings
                                                                            2. Adaptation Properties
                                                                              1. Spatial Resolution
                                                                              2. Proprioception
                                                                                1. Muscle Spindles
                                                                                  1. Structure and Function
                                                                                    1. Stretch Detection
                                                                                    2. Golgi Tendon Organs
                                                                                      1. Tension Detection
                                                                                        1. Protective Reflexes
                                                                                        2. Joint Receptors
                                                                                          1. Vestibular Contributions
                                                                                          2. Pain Sensation
                                                                                            1. Nociceptor Types
                                                                                              1. Pain Pathways
                                                                                                1. Pain Modulation
                                                                                              2. Hearing and Equilibrium
                                                                                                1. Sound as a Stimulus
                                                                                                  1. Sound Waves
                                                                                                    1. Frequency and Amplitude
                                                                                                      1. Sound Localization
                                                                                                      2. Vertebrate Auditory System
                                                                                                        1. Outer Ear
                                                                                                          1. Sound Collection
                                                                                                            1. Amplification
                                                                                                            2. Middle Ear
                                                                                                              1. Ossicles
                                                                                                                1. Impedance Matching
                                                                                                                2. Inner Ear
                                                                                                                  1. Cochlea Structure
                                                                                                                    1. Hair Cell Mechanics
                                                                                                                      1. Frequency Analysis
                                                                                                                    2. Sound Transduction
                                                                                                                      1. Hair Cell Structure
                                                                                                                        1. Mechanotransduction
                                                                                                                          1. Frequency Coding
                                                                                                                            1. Amplitude Coding
                                                                                                                            2. Vestibular System
                                                                                                                              1. Semicircular Canals
                                                                                                                                1. Angular Acceleration Detection
                                                                                                                                  1. Cupula and Endolymph
                                                                                                                                  2. Otolith Organs
                                                                                                                                    1. Linear Acceleration Detection
                                                                                                                                      1. Gravity Sensing
                                                                                                                                        1. Otoconia Function
                                                                                                                                      2. Invertebrate Hearing
                                                                                                                                        1. Tympanic Organs
                                                                                                                                          1. Johnston's Organs
                                                                                                                                            1. Statocysts
                                                                                                                                          2. Vision
                                                                                                                                            1. Light as a Stimulus
                                                                                                                                              1. Electromagnetic Radiation
                                                                                                                                                1. Visible Spectrum
                                                                                                                                                  1. Photon Energy
                                                                                                                                                  2. Photoreceptor Types
                                                                                                                                                    1. Rhabdomeric Photoreceptors
                                                                                                                                                      1. Ciliary Photoreceptors
                                                                                                                                                      2. Invertebrate Visual Systems
                                                                                                                                                        1. Compound Eyes
                                                                                                                                                          1. Ommatidial Structure
                                                                                                                                                            1. Apposition Eyes
                                                                                                                                                              1. Superposition Eyes
                                                                                                                                                              2. Simple Eyes
                                                                                                                                                                1. Ocelli
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Camera Eyes
                                                                                                                                                                2. Vertebrate Visual System
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Eye Structure
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cornea
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lens
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Retina
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Supporting Structures
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Retinal Organization
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Photoreceptor Layer
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bipolar Cell Layer
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ganglion Cell Layer
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Photoreceptor Types
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Rods
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Scotopic Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. High Sensitivity
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Cones
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Photopic Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Color Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                      3. Phototransduction
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Visual Pigments
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Rhodopsin
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cone Opsins
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Transduction Cascade
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. G-Protein Activation
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Phosphodiesterase
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Cyclic GMP
                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Signal Amplification
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Adaptation Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Visual Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Retinal Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Center-Surround Organization
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Edge Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Central Visual Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Visual Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Parallel Processing Streams
                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Chemical Senses
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Taste (Gustation)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Taste Modalities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Sweet
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Sour
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Salty
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Bitter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Umami
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Taste Bud Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Taste Transduction Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Central Taste Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Smell (Olfaction)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Odorant Molecules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Olfactory Epithelium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Olfactory Receptor Neurons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Olfactory Transduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Olfactory Bulb Processing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Central Olfactory Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Invertebrate Chemoreception
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Antennae
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Chemosensory Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pheromone Detection

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            3. Nervous System and Neuronal Communication

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            5. Endocrine System and Hormonal Control