Animal Physiology

4.

Sensory Systems

4.1.

Principles of Sensory Reception

4.1.1.

Sensory Transduction

4.1.1.1.

Stimulus Energy Conversion

4.1.1.2.

Receptor Proteins

4.1.1.3.

Signal Amplification

4.1.2.

Receptor Potentials

4.1.2.1.

4.1.2.2.

Stimulus Intensity Coding

4.1.3.

Sensory Adaptation

4.1.3.1.

Tonic Receptors

4.1.3.2.

Phasic Receptors

4.1.3.3.

Mechanisms of Adaptation

4.1.4.

4.1.4.1.

Frequency Coding

4.1.4.2.

Population Coding

4.1.4.3.

Labeled Line Principle

4.2.

Classification of Sensory Receptors

4.2.1.

By Stimulus Type

4.2.1.1.

Mechanoreceptors

4.2.1.1.1.

Touch and Pressure

4.2.1.1.2.

4.2.1.1.3.

Balance and Equilibrium

4.2.1.1.4.

4.2.1.2.

4.2.1.2.1.

Taste (Gustation)

4.2.1.2.2.

Smell (Olfaction)

4.2.1.2.3.

Internal Chemical Sensing

4.2.1.3.

4.2.1.3.1.

4.2.1.3.2.

Circadian Photoreception

4.2.1.4.

Thermoreceptors

4.2.1.4.1.

4.2.1.4.2.

4.2.1.5.

4.2.1.5.1.

4.2.1.5.2.

Tissue Damage Sensing

4.2.1.6.

Electroreceptors

4.2.1.6.1.

Electric Field Detection

4.2.1.6.2.

Bioelectric Sensing

4.2.1.7.

Magnetoreceptors

4.2.1.7.1.

Magnetic Field Detection

4.2.1.7.2.

4.2.2.

4.2.2.1.

4.2.2.2.

4.2.2.3.

4.3.

Somatosensory System

4.3.1.

Touch and Pressure Sensation

4.3.1.1.

Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors

4.3.1.1.1.

Meissner's Corpuscles

4.3.1.1.2.

Pacinian Corpuscles

4.3.1.1.3.

4.3.1.1.4.

Ruffini Endings

4.3.1.2.

Adaptation Properties

4.3.1.3.

Spatial Resolution

4.3.2.

4.3.2.1.

Muscle Spindles

4.3.2.1.1.

Structure and Function

4.3.2.1.2.

Stretch Detection

4.3.2.2.

Golgi Tendon Organs

4.3.2.2.1.

Tension Detection

4.3.2.2.2.

Protective Reflexes

4.3.2.3.

Joint Receptors

4.3.2.4.

Vestibular Contributions

4.3.3.

4.3.3.1.

Nociceptor Types

4.3.3.2.

4.3.3.3.

Pain Modulation

4.4.

Hearing and Equilibrium

4.4.1.

Sound as a Stimulus

4.4.1.1.

4.4.1.2.

Frequency and Amplitude

4.4.1.3.

Sound Localization

4.4.2.

Vertebrate Auditory System

4.4.2.1.

4.4.2.1.1.

Sound Collection

4.4.2.1.2.

4.4.2.2.

4.4.2.2.1.

4.4.2.2.2.

Impedance Matching

4.4.2.3.

4.4.2.3.1.

Cochlea Structure

4.4.2.3.2.

Hair Cell Mechanics

4.4.2.3.3.

Frequency Analysis

4.4.3.

Sound Transduction

4.4.3.1.

Hair Cell Structure

4.4.3.2.

Mechanotransduction

4.4.3.3.

Frequency Coding

4.4.3.4.

Amplitude Coding

4.4.4.

Vestibular System

4.4.4.1.

Semicircular Canals

4.4.4.1.1.

Angular Acceleration Detection

4.4.4.1.2.

Cupula and Endolymph

4.4.4.2.

4.4.4.2.1.

Linear Acceleration Detection

4.4.4.2.2.

Gravity Sensing

4.4.4.2.3.

Otoconia Function

4.4.5.

Invertebrate Hearing

4.4.5.1.

Tympanic Organs

4.4.5.2.

Johnston's Organs

4.4.5.3.

4.5.

4.5.1.

Light as a Stimulus

4.5.1.1.

Electromagnetic Radiation

4.5.1.2.

Visible Spectrum

4.5.1.3.

4.5.2.

Photoreceptor Types

4.5.2.1.

Rhabdomeric Photoreceptors

4.5.2.2.

Ciliary Photoreceptors

4.5.3.

Invertebrate Visual Systems

4.5.3.1.

4.5.3.1.1.

Ommatidial Structure

4.5.3.1.2.

Apposition Eyes

4.5.3.1.3.

Superposition Eyes

4.5.3.2.

4.5.3.2.1.

4.5.3.2.2.

4.5.4.

Vertebrate Visual System

4.5.4.1.

4.5.4.1.1.

4.5.4.1.2.

4.5.4.1.3.

4.5.4.1.4.

Supporting Structures

4.5.4.2.

Retinal Organization

4.5.4.2.1.

Photoreceptor Layer

4.5.4.2.2.

Bipolar Cell Layer

4.5.4.2.3.

Ganglion Cell Layer

4.5.4.3.

Photoreceptor Types

4.5.4.3.1.

4.5.4.3.1.1.

Scotopic Vision

4.5.4.3.1.2.

High Sensitivity

4.5.4.3.2.

4.5.4.3.2.1.

Photopic Vision

4.5.4.3.2.2.

4.5.5.

Phototransduction

4.5.5.1.

Visual Pigments

4.5.5.1.1.

4.5.5.1.2.

4.5.5.2.

Transduction Cascade

4.5.5.2.1.

G-Protein Activation

4.5.5.2.2.

Phosphodiesterase

4.5.5.2.3.

4.5.5.3.

Signal Amplification

4.5.5.4.

Adaptation Mechanisms

4.5.6.

Visual Processing

4.5.6.1.

Retinal Processing

4.5.6.1.1.

Center-Surround Organization

4.5.6.1.2.

4.5.6.2.

Central Visual Pathways

4.5.6.2.1.

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus

4.5.6.2.2.

4.5.6.2.3.

Parallel Processing Streams

4.6.

Chemical Senses

4.6.1.

Taste (Gustation)

4.6.1.1.

Taste Modalities

4.6.1.1.1.

4.6.1.1.2.

4.6.1.1.3.

4.6.1.1.4.

4.6.1.1.5.

4.6.1.2.

Taste Bud Structure

4.6.1.3.

Taste Transduction Mechanisms

4.6.1.4.

Central Taste Pathways

4.6.2.

Smell (Olfaction)

4.6.2.1.

Odorant Molecules

4.6.2.2.

Olfactory Epithelium

4.6.2.3.

Olfactory Receptor Neurons

4.6.2.4.

Olfactory Transduction

4.6.2.5.

Olfactory Bulb Processing

4.6.2.6.

Central Olfactory Pathways

4.6.3.

Invertebrate Chemoreception

4.6.3.1.

4.6.3.2.

Chemosensory Organs

4.6.3.3.

Pheromone Detection

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