Animal Physiology

  1. Nutrition and Digestion
    1. Nutritional Requirements
      1. Essential Nutrients
        1. Essential Amino Acids
          1. Essential Fatty Acids
            1. Vitamins
              1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
                1. Water-Soluble Vitamins
                2. Minerals
                  1. Macrominerals
                    1. Trace Elements
                  2. Macronutrients
                    1. Carbohydrates
                      1. Simple Sugars
                        1. Complex Carbohydrates
                          1. Energy Storage
                          2. Proteins
                            1. Amino Acid Composition
                              1. Protein Quality
                                1. Nitrogen Balance
                                2. Lipids
                                  1. Saturated Fats
                                    1. Unsaturated Fats
                                      1. Essential Fatty Acids
                                    2. Energy Requirements
                                      1. Basal Metabolic Rate
                                        1. Activity Energy Costs
                                          1. Thermic Effect of Food
                                        2. Feeding Strategies
                                          1. Filter Feeding
                                            1. Suspension Feeding
                                              1. Particle Capture Mechanisms
                                              2. Bulk Feeding
                                                1. Predation
                                                  1. Herbivory
                                                    1. Omnivory
                                                    2. Fluid Feeding
                                                      1. Nectar Feeding
                                                        1. Blood Feeding
                                                          1. Plant Sap Feeding
                                                          2. Substrate Feeding
                                                            1. Decomposer Feeding
                                                              1. Parasitic Feeding
                                                            2. Digestive System Organization
                                                              1. Intracellular Digestion
                                                                1. Phagocytosis
                                                                  1. Lysosomal Digestion
                                                                  2. Extracellular Digestion
                                                                    1. Gastrovascular Cavities
                                                                      1. Alimentary Canals
                                                                      2. Digestive Tract Types
                                                                        1. Incomplete Digestive Systems
                                                                          1. Complete Digestive Systems
                                                                            1. Advantages of Complete Systems
                                                                        2. Vertebrate Digestive System
                                                                          1. Oral Cavity
                                                                            1. Teeth Structure and Function
                                                                              1. Incisors
                                                                                1. Canines
                                                                                  1. Premolars
                                                                                    1. Molars
                                                                                    2. Mastication Process
                                                                                      1. Salivary Glands
                                                                                        1. Saliva Composition
                                                                                          1. Enzyme Functions
                                                                                            1. pH Buffering
                                                                                          2. Pharynx and Esophagus
                                                                                            1. Swallowing Mechanism
                                                                                              1. Voluntary Phase
                                                                                                1. Pharyngeal Phase
                                                                                                  1. Esophageal Phase
                                                                                                  2. Peristalsis
                                                                                                  3. Stomach
                                                                                                    1. Gastric Anatomy
                                                                                                      1. Gastric Secretions
                                                                                                        1. Hydrochloric Acid
                                                                                                          1. Pepsinogen
                                                                                                            1. Intrinsic Factor
                                                                                                              1. Mucus
                                                                                                              2. Gastric Motility
                                                                                                                1. Protein Digestion
                                                                                                                2. Small Intestine
                                                                                                                  1. Anatomical Regions
                                                                                                                    1. Duodenum
                                                                                                                      1. Jejunum
                                                                                                                        1. Ileum
                                                                                                                        2. Surface Area Adaptations
                                                                                                                          1. Villi
                                                                                                                            1. Microvilli
                                                                                                                              1. Brush Border
                                                                                                                              2. Enzymatic Digestion
                                                                                                                                1. Pancreatic Enzymes
                                                                                                                                  1. Brush Border Enzymes
                                                                                                                                  2. Nutrient Absorption
                                                                                                                                    1. Carbohydrate Absorption
                                                                                                                                      1. Protein Absorption
                                                                                                                                        1. Lipid Absorption
                                                                                                                                          1. Vitamin Absorption
                                                                                                                                            1. Mineral Absorption
                                                                                                                                          2. Accessory Organs
                                                                                                                                            1. Pancreas
                                                                                                                                              1. Exocrine Functions
                                                                                                                                                1. Digestive Enzyme Production
                                                                                                                                                  1. Bicarbonate Secretion
                                                                                                                                                  2. Liver
                                                                                                                                                    1. Bile Production
                                                                                                                                                      1. Metabolic Functions
                                                                                                                                                        1. Detoxification
                                                                                                                                                        2. Gallbladder
                                                                                                                                                          1. Bile Storage
                                                                                                                                                            1. Bile Concentration
                                                                                                                                                          2. Large Intestine
                                                                                                                                                            1. Water Absorption
                                                                                                                                                              1. Electrolyte Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                1. Bacterial Fermentation
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Feces Formation
                                                                                                                                                                2. Digestive System Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Neural Control
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Enteric Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Autonomic Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Reflex Control
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Hormonal Control
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Gastrin
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cholecystokinin
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Secretin
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Gastric Inhibitory Peptide
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Digestive Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Herbivore Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Cellulose Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Ruminant Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Rumen Function
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Microbial Fermentation
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cud Chewing
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Cecal Fermentation
                                                                                                                                                                                          3. Carnivore Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Protein Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Short Digestive Tracts
                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Omnivore Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Dietary Flexibility
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Enzyme Diversity

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                                                                                                                                                                                              7. Circulatory and Gas Exchange Systems

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                                                                                                                                                                                              9. Osmoregulation and Excretion