Geology

Geology is the fundamental Earth science dedicated to understanding our planet's physical structure, composition, and history. It investigates the solid materials, such as rocks and minerals, that constitute the Earth, as well as the dynamic internal and surface processes—from plate tectonics and volcanism to erosion and sedimentation—that have shaped its landscapes over billions of years. By interpreting the rock record, geologists reconstruct Earth's past environments, uncover valuable natural resources, and assess geological hazards, providing a crucial foundation for understanding the planet's ongoing evolution.

1. Introduction to Geology
   1. Defining Geology as an Earth Science
      1. Scope of Geology
      2. Importance of Geology in Society
      3. Relationship to Other Earth Sciences
   2. Branches of Geology
      1. Physical Geology
         1. Study of Earth's Materials
         2. Processes Shaping the Earth
      2. Historical Geology
         1. Earth's History and Evolution
         2. Methods of Reconstructing Past Events
      3. Mineralogy
         1. Study of Minerals
         2. Mineral Identification Techniques
      4. Petrology
         1. Study of Rocks
         2. Rock Classification
      5. Structural Geology
         1. Study of Rock Deformation
         2. Analysis of Geological Structures
      6. Sedimentology
         1. Study of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks
         2. Sedimentary Processes
      7. Paleontology
         1. Study of Fossils
         2. Evolutionary History of Life
      8. Geomorphology
         1. Study of Landforms
         2. Surface Processes
      9. Geochemistry
         1. Chemical Composition of Earth Materials
         2. Geochemical Cycles
      10. Geophysics
          1. Physical Properties of Earth
          2. Geophysical Survey Methods
      11. Hydrogeology
          1. Groundwater Systems
          2. Water-Rock Interactions
      12. Environmental Geology
          1. Human-Environment Interactions
          2. Geologic Hazards
      13. Economic Geology
          1. Mineral and Energy Resources
          2. Resource Exploration
   3. The Scientific Method in Geology
      1. Observation and Data Collection
      2. Hypothesis Formation
      3. Experimentation and Testing
      4. Theory Development
      5. Application to Geologic Problems
   4. Fundamental Geologic Principles
      1. Uniformitarianism
         1. "The Present is the Key to the Past"
         2. Gradual Change Over Time
      2. Catastrophism
         1. Role of Sudden Events in Geology
         2. Modern Understanding of Catastrophic Events
      3. Actualism
         1. Modern Processes as Analogs for Past Events
   5. The Earth System
      1. Geosphere
         1. Composition and Structure
         2. Dynamic Processes
      2. Hydrosphere
         1. Distribution of Water
         2. Water Cycle
      3. Atmosphere
         1. Composition and Layers
         2. Role in Geologic Processes
      4. Biosphere
         1. Interactions with Geologic Processes
         2. Influence on Earth's Surface
      5. System Interactions and Feedbacks