Geology

12.

Surface Processes: Geomorphology

12.1.

12.1.1.

Triggers of Mass Wasting

12.1.1.1.

12.1.1.1.1.

Saturation Effects

12.1.1.1.2.

12.1.1.2.

12.1.1.2.1.

Natural Processes

12.1.1.2.2.

Human Activities

12.1.1.3.

Vegetation Removal

12.1.1.3.1.

Root Strength Loss

12.1.1.3.2.

12.1.1.4.

12.1.1.4.1.

12.1.1.4.2.

Slope Destabilization

12.1.1.5.

Volcanic Activity

12.1.1.5.1.

12.1.1.5.2.

12.1.2.

Types of Mass Wasting

12.1.2.1.

12.1.2.1.1.

Rotational Movement

12.1.2.1.2.

Curved Failure Surface

12.1.2.2.

12.1.2.2.1.

12.1.2.2.2.

12.1.2.3.

12.1.2.3.1.

Water-Saturated

12.1.2.3.2.

12.1.2.4.

12.1.2.4.1.

Slower Movement

12.1.2.4.2.

Clay-Rich Material

12.1.2.5.

12.1.2.5.1.

Very Slow Movement

12.1.2.5.2.

12.1.2.6.

12.1.2.6.1.

Fine-Grained Material

12.1.2.6.2.

High Water Content

12.1.2.7.

12.1.2.7.1.

12.1.2.7.2.

12.1.3.

Prevention and Mitigation

12.1.3.1.

Slope Stabilization

12.1.3.2.

Drainage Control

12.1.3.3.

Vegetation Management

12.1.3.4.

Engineering Solutions

12.2.

12.2.1.

Hydrologic Cycle

12.2.1.1.

12.2.1.2.

12.2.1.3.

12.2.1.4.

12.2.2.

Streamflow and Sediment Transport

12.2.2.1.

Erosion Processes

12.2.2.1.1.

Hydraulic Action

12.2.2.1.2.

12.2.2.1.3.

12.2.2.2.

Transportation Modes

12.2.2.2.1.

12.2.2.2.2.

12.2.2.2.3.

12.2.2.2.4.

12.2.2.3.

Deposition Processes

12.2.2.3.1.

Velocity Decrease

12.2.2.3.2.

Capacity Reduction

12.2.3.

12.2.3.1.

V-shaped Valleys

12.2.3.1.1.

12.2.3.1.2.

Valley Widening

12.2.3.2.

12.2.3.2.1.

Lateral Erosion

12.2.3.2.2.

Sediment Deposition

12.2.3.3.

12.2.3.3.1.

Sinuous Channels

12.2.3.3.2.

Point Bars and Cut Banks

12.2.3.4.

12.2.3.4.1.

Abandoned Meanders

12.2.4.

Drainage Patterns

12.2.4.1.

12.2.4.1.1.

Tree-Like Pattern

12.2.4.1.2.

Uniform Rock Resistance

12.2.4.2.

12.2.4.2.1.

Outward from Center

12.2.4.2.2.

12.2.4.3.

12.2.4.3.1.

Right-Angle Bends

12.2.4.3.2.

12.2.4.4.

12.2.4.4.1.

Parallel Tributaries

12.2.4.4.2.

12.2.5.

12.2.5.1.

12.2.5.1.1.

River Mouth Deposition

12.2.5.1.2.

Distributary Channels

12.2.5.2.

12.2.5.2.1.

Mountain Front Deposition

12.2.5.2.2.

Arid Environments

12.2.5.3.

12.2.5.3.1.

12.2.5.3.2.

Channel Margins

12.2.5.4.

12.2.5.4.1.

Former Floodplains

12.2.5.4.2.

12.2.6.

Floods and Flood Control

12.2.6.1.

12.2.6.2.

Flood Frequency

12.2.6.3.

Mitigation Strategies

12.3.

12.3.1.

The Water Table

12.3.1.1.

12.3.1.2.

Unsaturated Zone

12.3.1.3.

Water Table Fluctuations

12.3.2.

Aquifers and Aquitards

12.3.2.1.

Confined Aquifers

12.3.2.2.

Unconfined Aquifers

12.3.2.3.

Permeability and Porosity

12.3.3.

12.3.3.1.

Natural Discharge

12.3.3.2.

12.3.4.

12.3.4.1.

Water Well Construction

12.3.4.2.

Cone of Depression

12.3.5.

Artesian Systems

12.3.5.1.

Confined Aquifer Systems

12.3.5.2.

12.3.6.

Groundwater Issues

12.3.6.1.

Overuse and Depletion

12.3.6.1.1.

Water Table Decline

12.3.6.1.2.

12.3.6.2.

12.3.6.2.1.

12.3.6.2.2.

Non-Point Sources

12.3.6.2.3.

Plume Migration

12.3.6.3.

12.3.6.3.1.

Land Surface Lowering

12.3.6.3.2.

Aquifer Compaction

12.3.7.

Karst Topography

12.3.7.1.

Limestone Dissolution

12.3.7.2.

12.3.7.2.1.

Collapse Features

12.3.7.3.

12.3.7.3.1.

Underground Passages

12.3.7.4.

Stalactites and Stalagmites

12.3.7.4.1.

Cave Formations

12.3.7.5.

Disappearing Streams

12.4.

Glaciers and Glaciation

12.4.1.

Types of Glaciers

12.4.1.1.

Alpine Glaciers

12.4.1.1.1.

Mountain Glaciers

12.4.1.1.2.

Valley Glaciers

12.4.1.2.

Continental Glaciers

12.4.1.2.1.

12.4.1.2.2.

12.4.2.

Glacial Movement

12.4.2.1.

12.4.2.1.1.

Plastic Deformation

12.4.2.2.

12.4.2.2.1.

Sliding on Bedrock

12.4.2.3.

Factors Affecting Movement

12.4.3.

Glacial Erosion and Landforms

12.4.3.1.

12.4.3.1.1.

Amphitheater-Shaped Basins

12.4.3.2.

12.4.3.2.1.

12.4.3.3.

12.4.3.3.1.

Pyramidal Peaks

12.4.3.4.

U-shaped Valleys

12.4.3.4.1.

Glacial Troughs

12.4.3.5.

12.4.3.5.1.

Drowned Glacial Valleys

12.4.3.6.

Roche Moutonnées

12.4.3.6.1.

Streamlined Bedrock

12.4.4.

Glacial Deposits and Landforms

12.4.4.1.

12.4.4.1.1.

Terminal Moraines

12.4.4.1.2.

Lateral Moraines

12.4.4.1.3.

Medial Moraines

12.4.4.1.4.

Ground Moraines

12.4.4.2.

12.4.4.2.1.

Streamlined Hills

12.4.4.3.

12.4.4.3.1.

12.4.4.4.

12.4.4.4.1.

Glacial Meltwater Deposits

12.4.4.5.

12.4.4.5.1.

Depression Lakes

12.4.5.

Pleistocene Glaciation

12.4.5.1.

12.4.5.2.

Glacial and Interglacial Periods

12.4.5.3.

Effects on Landscape

12.5.

Deserts and Eolian Processes

12.5.1.

Characteristics of Deserts

12.5.1.1.

Low Precipitation

12.5.1.2.

High Evaporation

12.5.1.3.

Temperature Extremes

12.5.2.

12.5.2.1.

12.5.2.1.1.

Particle Removal

12.5.2.1.2.

12.5.2.2.

12.5.2.2.1.

Sandblasting Effect

12.5.2.2.2.

12.5.3.

12.5.3.1.

12.5.3.1.1.

Sand Accumulation

12.5.3.1.2.

12.5.3.2.

12.5.3.2.1.

12.5.3.2.2.

Transverse Dunes

12.5.3.2.3.

Longitudinal Dunes

12.5.3.2.4.

12.5.3.3.

12.5.3.3.1.

Wind-Blown Silt

12.5.3.3.2.

12.5.4.

Desert Landforms

12.5.4.1.

12.5.4.1.1.

12.5.4.1.2.

12.5.4.2.

12.5.4.2.1.

Mountain Front Deposits

12.5.4.3.

12.5.4.3.1.

12.5.4.4.

12.5.4.4.1.

Erosional Surfaces

12.6.

Coastal Processes

12.6.1.

Waves and Tides

12.6.1.1.

12.6.1.1.1.

Wind Generation

12.6.1.1.2.

Wave Properties

12.6.1.2.

Wave Refraction

12.6.1.2.1.

Shallow Water Effects

12.6.1.3.

12.6.1.3.1.

Gravitational Forces

12.6.1.3.2.

12.6.2.

Coastal Erosion and Landforms

12.6.2.1.

12.6.2.1.1.

Wave Undercutting

12.6.2.2.

Wave-cut Platforms

12.6.2.2.1.

Erosional Benches

12.6.2.3.

Sea Arches and Stacks

12.6.2.3.1.

Differential Erosion

12.6.2.4.

Headlands and Bays

12.6.2.4.1.

Irregular Coastlines

12.6.3.

Coastal Deposition and Landforms

12.6.3.1.

12.6.3.1.1.

Sand and Gravel Deposits

12.6.3.1.2.

12.6.3.2.

12.6.3.2.1.

Elongated Deposits

12.6.3.3.

Barrier Islands

12.6.3.3.1.

Offshore Sand Bars

12.6.3.4.

12.6.3.4.1.

Protected Water Bodies

12.6.3.5.

12.6.3.5.1.

River Mouth Deposits

12.6.4.

Human Impact on Coasts

12.6.4.1.

Coastal Engineering

12.6.4.1.1.

12.6.4.1.2.

12.6.4.1.3.

12.6.4.2.

Erosion Control

12.6.4.2.1.

Beach Nourishment

12.6.4.3.

Development Impacts

12.6.4.3.1.

Habitat Destruction

12.6.4.3.2.

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13. Historical Geology: A Journey Through Time