Geology

11.

11.1.

Volcanic Settings

11.1.1.

Convergent Plate Boundaries

11.1.1.1.

Subduction Zones

11.1.1.1.1.

Oceanic-Continental

11.1.1.1.2.

Oceanic-Oceanic

11.1.1.2.

11.1.1.2.1.

Pacific Rim Volcanism

11.1.2.

Divergent Plate Boundaries

11.1.2.1.

Mid-Ocean Ridges

11.1.2.1.1.

Submarine Volcanism

11.1.2.2.

Continental Rifts

11.1.2.2.1.

East African Rift

11.1.3.

Intraplate Volcanism

11.1.3.1.

11.1.3.1.1.

11.1.3.1.2.

Hawaiian Islands

11.1.3.2.

Continental Hot Spots

11.1.3.2.1.

11.2.

Nature of Volcanic Eruptions

11.2.1.

Role of Magma Composition

11.2.1.1.

Silica Content Effects

11.2.1.2.

Viscosity Control

11.2.2.

Influence of Temperature

11.2.2.1.

High Temperature Magmas

11.2.2.2.

Low Temperature Magmas

11.2.3.

Gas Content and Eruption Style

11.2.3.1.

Volatile Components

11.2.3.2.

Degassing Processes

11.2.4.

Explosive vs. Effusive Eruptions

11.2.4.1.

Factors Controlling Style

11.2.4.2.

Volcanic Explosivity Index

11.3.

Materials Extruded During an Eruption

11.3.1.

11.3.1.1.

11.3.1.1.1.

11.3.1.1.2.

11.3.1.2.

11.3.1.2.1.

11.3.1.2.2.

Higher Viscosity

11.3.1.3.

11.3.1.3.1.

11.3.1.4.

11.3.1.4.1.

Submarine Eruptions

11.3.2.

11.3.2.1.

11.3.2.1.1.

11.3.2.2.

11.3.2.2.1.

11.3.2.3.

Sulfur Compounds

11.3.2.3.1.

Acid Rain Formation

11.3.2.4.

11.3.3.

Pyroclastic Materials

11.3.3.1.

11.3.3.1.1.

11.3.3.2.

11.3.3.2.1.

Vesicular Glass

11.3.3.3.

11.3.3.3.1.

11.3.3.4.

11.3.3.4.1.

Large Projectiles

11.3.3.5.

11.3.3.5.1.

Pea-Sized Fragments

11.4.

Volcano Types and Landforms

11.4.1.

Shield Volcanoes

11.4.1.1.

Broad, Low Profile

11.4.1.2.

Basaltic Composition

11.4.1.3.

11.4.2.

11.4.2.1.

Small, Steep-Sided

11.4.2.2.

Pyroclastic Construction

11.4.3.

Composite Volcanoes

11.4.3.1.

Stratovolcanoes

11.4.3.2.

Alternating Layers

11.4.3.3.

Explosive Eruptions

11.4.4.

11.4.4.1.

Large Collapse Features

11.4.4.2.

Explosive Eruptions

11.4.5.

Fissure Eruptions

11.4.5.1.

11.4.5.2.

11.4.6.

11.4.6.1.

Extensive Lava Flows

11.4.7.

11.4.7.1.

11.4.7.2.

11.5.

Volcanic Hazards

11.5.1.

11.5.1.1.

Property Destruction

11.5.1.2.

Slow-Moving Threat

11.5.2.

Pyroclastic Flows

11.5.2.1.

Hot Gas and Ash

11.5.2.2.

11.5.2.3.

11.5.3.

11.5.3.1.

Widespread Distribution

11.5.3.2.

Respiratory Hazard

11.5.3.3.

11.5.4.

11.5.4.1.

Volcanic Mudflows

11.5.4.2.

Water and Debris

11.5.5.

11.5.5.1.

Toxic Emissions

11.5.5.2.

11.5.6.

11.5.6.1.

Volcanic Island Collapse

11.5.6.2.

Submarine Eruptions

11.5.7.

Long-Term Climate Effects

11.5.7.1.

Ash and Gas Injection

11.5.7.2.

11.6.

Monitoring and Predicting Volcanic Activity

11.6.1.

Seismic Monitoring

11.6.1.1.

Earthquake Swarms

11.6.1.2.

Harmonic Tremor

11.6.2.

Ground Deformation

11.6.2.1.

Inflation and Deflation

11.6.2.2.

GPS Measurements

11.6.3.

11.6.3.1.

Chemical Composition

11.6.3.2.

11.6.4.

Thermal Monitoring

11.6.4.1.

Temperature Changes

11.6.4.2.

Satellite Imagery

11.6.5.

Warning Systems

11.6.5.1.

11.6.5.2.

Evacuation Planning

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12. Surface Processes: Geomorphology