Environmental Biology

  1. Biodiversity
    1. Concepts and Measurement
      1. Genetic Diversity
        1. Allelic Diversity
          1. Heterozygosity
            1. Population Genetics
            2. Species Diversity
              1. Alpha Diversity
                1. Beta Diversity
                  1. Gamma Diversity
                  2. Ecosystem Diversity
                    1. Habitat Diversity
                      1. Functional Diversity
                        1. Landscape Diversity
                        2. Phylogenetic Diversity
                          1. Evolutionary Distinctiveness
                            1. Phylogenetic Endemism
                          2. Patterns of Biodiversity
                            1. Latitudinal Gradients
                              1. Altitudinal Gradients
                                1. Island Biogeography
                                  1. Hotspots and Endemism
                                    1. Rarity Patterns
                                    2. Biodiversity Values
                                      1. Intrinsic Value
                                        1. Ethical Considerations
                                          1. Rights of Nature
                                          2. Instrumental Values
                                            1. Ecosystem Services
                                              1. Provisioning Services
                                                1. Regulating Services
                                                  1. Cultural Services
                                                    1. Supporting Services
                                                    2. Economic Valuation
                                                      1. Direct Use Values
                                                        1. Indirect Use Values
                                                          1. Option Values
                                                            1. Existence Values
                                                        2. Threats to Biodiversity
                                                          1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation
                                                            1. Deforestation
                                                              1. Urbanization
                                                                1. Agricultural Expansion
                                                                  1. Infrastructure Development
                                                                  2. Overexploitation
                                                                    1. Overfishing
                                                                      1. Hunting and Poaching
                                                                        1. Overharvesting
                                                                        2. Invasive Species
                                                                          1. Introduction Pathways
                                                                            1. Establishment Factors
                                                                              1. Impact Mechanisms
                                                                                1. Management Challenges
                                                                                2. Pollution
                                                                                  1. Chemical Pollution
                                                                                    1. Plastic Pollution
                                                                                      1. Light and Noise Pollution
                                                                                      2. Climate Change
                                                                                        1. Temperature Effects
                                                                                          1. Precipitation Changes
                                                                                            1. Sea Level Rise
                                                                                              1. Ocean Acidification
                                                                                              2. Disease
                                                                                                1. Emerging Diseases
                                                                                                  1. Pathogen Pollution
                                                                                                    1. Climate-Disease Interactions
                                                                                                  2. Extinction
                                                                                                    1. Extinction Processes
                                                                                                      1. Population Decline
                                                                                                        1. Local Extinction
                                                                                                          1. Global Extinction
                                                                                                          2. Background vs Mass Extinction
                                                                                                            1. Natural Extinction Rates
                                                                                                              1. Current Extinction Rates
                                                                                                                1. Sixth Mass Extinction
                                                                                                                2. Extinction Debt
                                                                                                                  1. Vulnerable Species Characteristics
                                                                                                                    1. Small Population Size
                                                                                                                      1. Limited Range
                                                                                                                        1. Specialized Requirements
                                                                                                                          1. Low Reproductive Rate
                                                                                                                            1. High Trophic Level

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                                                                                                                        11. Conservation Biology