Comparative Animal Physiology and Anatomy

  1. Respiration and Gas Exchange
    1. Physical Principles of Gas Exchange
      1. Gas Laws and Partial Pressures
        1. Dalton's Law
          1. Henry's Law
            1. Gradients and Exchange Efficiency
            2. Fick's Law of Diffusion
              1. Variables Affecting Diffusion Rate
                1. Optimization Strategies
                2. Solubility and Transport
                  1. Gas Solubility in Water vs. Air
                    1. Temperature Effects
                  2. Respiratory Media
                    1. Gas Exchange in Air
                      1. Advantages and Challenges
                        1. Oxygen Availability
                        2. Gas Exchange in Water
                          1. Dissolved Oxygen Content
                            1. Temperature and Salinity Effects
                              1. Ventilation Requirements
                            2. Comparative Respiratory Surfaces
                              1. Cutaneous Respiration
                                1. Requirements and Limitations
                                  1. Examples Across Taxa
                                    1. Skin Modifications
                                    2. Gills
                                      1. External Gills
                                        1. Internal Gills
                                          1. Gill Structure and Function
                                            1. Ventilation Mechanisms
                                              1. Countercurrent Exchange
                                                1. Ram Ventilation
                                                2. Tracheal Systems
                                                  1. Arthropod Tracheal Systems
                                                    1. Tracheae and Spiracles
                                                      1. Gas Transport Mechanisms
                                                        1. Ventilation Strategies
                                                      2. Book Lungs
                                                        1. Structure in Arachnids
                                                        2. Lungs
                                                          1. Amphibian Lungs
                                                            1. Simple Sac Structure
                                                              1. Positive Pressure Breathing
                                                                1. Cutaneous Supplementation
                                                                2. Reptilian Lungs
                                                                  1. Increased Surface Area
                                                                    1. Ventilation Mechanisms
                                                                    2. Avian Respiratory System
                                                                      1. Parabronchi Structure
                                                                        1. Air Sac System
                                                                          1. Unidirectional Flow
                                                                            1. Efficiency Advantages
                                                                            2. Mammalian Lungs
                                                                              1. Alveolar Structure
                                                                                1. Tidal Ventilation
                                                                                  1. Respiratory Membrane
                                                                              2. Respiratory Pigments and Transport
                                                                                1. Hemoglobin
                                                                                  1. Structure and Oxygen Binding
                                                                                    1. Cooperative Binding
                                                                                      1. Bohr Effect
                                                                                      2. Hemocyanin
                                                                                        1. Copper-Based Transport
                                                                                          1. Distribution and Function
                                                                                          2. Hemerythrin
                                                                                            1. Iron-Based Transport
                                                                                            2. Chlorocruorin
                                                                                              1. Structure and Function
                                                                                              2. Carbon Dioxide Transport
                                                                                                1. Dissolved CO2
                                                                                                  1. Bicarbonate System
                                                                                                    1. Carbamino Compounds
                                                                                                  2. Control and Regulation of Respiration
                                                                                                    1. Neural Control Centers
                                                                                                      1. Medullary Centers
                                                                                                        1. Pontine Centers
                                                                                                        2. Chemical Regulation
                                                                                                          1. CO2 and pH Sensors
                                                                                                            1. Oxygen Sensors
                                                                                                              1. Feedback Mechanisms
                                                                                                              2. Voluntary Control
                                                                                                                1. Respiratory Adaptations
                                                                                                                  1. High Altitude Adaptations
                                                                                                                    1. Diving Adaptations

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                                                                                                                3. Nutrition and Digestion

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                                                                                                                5. Circulation and Internal Transport