Comparative Animal Physiology and Anatomy

  1. Nutrition and Digestion
    1. Nutritional Requirements
      1. Macronutrients
        1. Carbohydrates
          1. Simple Sugars
            1. Complex Carbohydrates
            2. Proteins
              1. Amino Acid Composition
                1. Protein Quality
                2. Lipids
                  1. Fatty Acids
                    1. Steroids
                      1. Phospholipids
                    2. Micronutrients
                      1. Vitamins
                        1. Water-Soluble Vitamins
                          1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
                          2. Minerals
                            1. Macrominerals
                              1. Trace Elements
                            2. Essential Amino Acids
                              1. Essential Fatty Acids
                                1. Energy Requirements and Metabolism
                                2. Feeding Mechanisms and Strategies
                                  1. Suspension and Filter Feeding
                                    1. Mechanisms and Adaptations
                                      1. Examples in Different Phyla
                                      2. Substrate and Deposit Feeding
                                        1. Adaptations and Examples
                                          1. Selective vs. Non-selective Feeding
                                          2. Fluid Feeding
                                            1. Specialized Mouthparts
                                              1. Piercing and Sucking Adaptations
                                              2. Bulk Feeding
                                                1. Jaw and Tooth Adaptations
                                                  1. Prey Capture Mechanisms
                                                  2. Parasitic Feeding
                                                    1. Adaptations for Parasitism
                                                  3. Comparative Digestive Systems
                                                    1. Intracellular Digestion
                                                      1. Mechanisms in Sponges
                                                        1. Phagocytosis and Digestion
                                                        2. Incomplete Digestive Tracts
                                                          1. Gastrovascular Cavity Structure
                                                            1. Limitations and Examples
                                                              1. Cnidarian Digestion
                                                              2. Complete Digestive Tracts
                                                                1. Alimentary Canal Structure
                                                                  1. Regional Specialization
                                                                    1. Advantages of Complete Systems
                                                                  2. Anatomical Specializations
                                                                    1. Oral Cavity and Feeding Structures
                                                                      1. Herbivore Adaptations
                                                                        1. Carnivore Adaptations
                                                                          1. Omnivore Adaptations
                                                                            1. Specialized Feeding Apparatus
                                                                            2. Esophagus and Storage Structures
                                                                              1. Transport Functions
                                                                                1. Crop Function
                                                                                2. Stomach Variations
                                                                                  1. Monogastric Stomachs
                                                                                    1. Structure and Function
                                                                                      1. Gastric Secretions
                                                                                      2. Ruminant Stomachs
                                                                                        1. Four-Chambered System
                                                                                          1. Microbial Fermentation
                                                                                            1. Rumination Process
                                                                                            2. Avian Digestive Adaptations
                                                                                              1. Crop and Gizzard
                                                                                            3. Intestinal Adaptations
                                                                                              1. Length Correlations with Diet
                                                                                                1. Surface Area Modifications
                                                                                                  1. Regional Specializations
                                                                                                  2. Fermentation Chambers
                                                                                                    1. Foregut Fermentation
                                                                                                      1. Hindgut Fermentation
                                                                                                        1. Cecum and Appendix
                                                                                                      2. Physiology of Digestion
                                                                                                        1. Mechanical Digestion
                                                                                                          1. Chewing and Mastication
                                                                                                            1. Churning and Mixing
                                                                                                              1. Peristalsis
                                                                                                              2. Chemical Digestion
                                                                                                                1. Enzyme Types and Functions
                                                                                                                  1. pH Requirements
                                                                                                                    1. Regulation of Secretion
                                                                                                                    2. Absorption Mechanisms
                                                                                                                      1. Passive Transport
                                                                                                                        1. Active Transport
                                                                                                                          1. Facilitated Diffusion
                                                                                                                            1. Transport Across Epithelia
                                                                                                                            2. Regulation of Digestion
                                                                                                                              1. Neural Control
                                                                                                                                1. Hormonal Control

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                                                                                                                            2. Tissues and Integumentary Systems

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                                                                                                                            4. Respiration and Gas Exchange