Comparative Animal Physiology and Anatomy

11.

Reproduction and Development

11.1.

Reproductive Strategies

11.1.1.

Asexual Reproduction

11.1.1.1.

11.1.1.1.1.

Simple Division

11.1.1.2.

11.1.1.2.1.

Outgrowth Formation

11.1.1.3.

11.1.1.3.1.

Body Part Regeneration

11.1.1.4.

Parthenogenesis

11.1.1.4.1.

Development Without Fertilization

11.1.1.4.2.

Genetic Implications

11.1.2.

Sexual Reproduction

11.1.2.1.

Gamete Formation

11.1.2.1.1.

11.1.2.1.2.

Meiosis and Genetic Variation

11.1.2.2.

11.1.2.2.1.

11.1.2.2.2.

11.1.2.2.3.

11.2.

Fertilization Mechanisms

11.2.1.

External Fertilization

11.2.1.1.

Aquatic Environments

11.2.1.2.

Synchronization Strategies

11.2.1.3.

Gamete Release Mechanisms

11.2.2.

Internal Fertilization

11.2.2.1.

Terrestrial Adaptations

11.2.2.2.

Copulatory Structures

11.2.2.3.

Sperm Transfer Mechanisms

11.2.3.

Hermaphroditism

11.2.3.1.

Simultaneous Hermaphrodites

11.2.3.2.

Sequential Hermaphrodites

11.3.

Developmental Strategies

11.3.1.

11.3.1.1.

Egg Structure and Composition

11.3.1.2.

Shell Types and Functions

11.3.1.3.

Parental Care Variations

11.3.2.

11.3.2.1.

Internal Egg Retention

11.3.2.2.

Nutritional Strategies

11.3.3.

11.3.3.1.

Placental Development

11.3.3.2.

Non-placental Viviparity

11.3.3.3.

Maternal-Fetal Exchange

11.4.

Comparative Embryonic Development

11.4.1.

Cleavage Patterns

11.4.1.1.

Spiral Cleavage

11.4.1.1.1.

Protostome Pattern

11.4.1.2.

Radial Cleavage

11.4.1.2.1.

Deuterostome Pattern

11.4.1.3.

Determinate vs. Indeterminate Development

11.4.2.

11.4.2.1.

Germ Layer Formation

11.4.2.1.1.

11.4.2.1.2.

11.4.2.1.3.

11.4.2.2.

Gastrulation Mechanisms

11.4.3.

11.4.3.1.

11.4.3.2.

Organ System Formation

11.4.3.3.

Developmental Timing

11.5.

Post-embryonic Development

11.5.1.

Direct Development

11.5.1.1.

Juvenile-Adult Similarity

11.5.1.2.

Growth Patterns

11.5.2.

Indirect Development

11.5.2.1.

11.5.2.1.1.

Larval Adaptations

11.5.2.1.2.

Ecological Roles

11.5.2.2.

11.5.2.2.1.

Complete Metamorphosis

11.5.2.2.2.

Incomplete Metamorphosis

11.5.2.2.3.

Hormonal Control

11.5.3.

Growth and Maturation

11.5.3.1.

Determinate Growth

11.5.3.2.

Indeterminate Growth

11.5.3.3.

Sexual Maturation

11.6.

Reproductive Cycles and Timing

11.6.1.

Seasonal Breeding

11.6.1.1.

Environmental Cues

11.6.1.2.

Photoperiod Effects

11.6.2.

Continuous Breeding

11.6.3.

Life History Strategies

11.6.3.1.

r-selected Species

11.6.3.2.

K-selected Species

11.6.3.3.

Trade-offs in Reproduction

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10. Thermoregulation

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1. Foundational Principles of Animal Form and Function