Comparative Animal Physiology and Anatomy

  1. Reproduction and Development
    1. Reproductive Strategies
      1. Asexual Reproduction
        1. Binary Fission
          1. Simple Division
          2. Budding
            1. Outgrowth Formation
            2. Fragmentation
              1. Body Part Regeneration
              2. Parthenogenesis
                1. Development Without Fertilization
                  1. Genetic Implications
                2. Sexual Reproduction
                  1. Gamete Formation
                    1. Gametogenesis
                      1. Meiosis and Genetic Variation
                      2. Mating Systems
                        1. Monogamy
                          1. Polygamy
                            1. Promiscuity
                        2. Fertilization Mechanisms
                          1. External Fertilization
                            1. Aquatic Environments
                              1. Synchronization Strategies
                                1. Gamete Release Mechanisms
                                2. Internal Fertilization
                                  1. Terrestrial Adaptations
                                    1. Copulatory Structures
                                      1. Sperm Transfer Mechanisms
                                      2. Hermaphroditism
                                        1. Simultaneous Hermaphrodites
                                          1. Sequential Hermaphrodites
                                        2. Developmental Strategies
                                          1. Oviparity
                                            1. Egg Structure and Composition
                                              1. Shell Types and Functions
                                                1. Parental Care Variations
                                                2. Ovoviviparity
                                                  1. Internal Egg Retention
                                                    1. Nutritional Strategies
                                                    2. Viviparity
                                                      1. Placental Development
                                                        1. Non-placental Viviparity
                                                          1. Maternal-Fetal Exchange
                                                        2. Comparative Embryonic Development
                                                          1. Cleavage Patterns
                                                            1. Spiral Cleavage
                                                              1. Protostome Pattern
                                                              2. Radial Cleavage
                                                                1. Deuterostome Pattern
                                                                2. Determinate vs. Indeterminate Development
                                                                3. Gastrulation
                                                                  1. Germ Layer Formation
                                                                    1. Ectoderm
                                                                      1. Mesoderm
                                                                        1. Endoderm
                                                                        2. Gastrulation Mechanisms
                                                                        3. Organogenesis
                                                                          1. Neurulation
                                                                            1. Organ System Formation
                                                                              1. Developmental Timing
                                                                            2. Post-embryonic Development
                                                                              1. Direct Development
                                                                                1. Juvenile-Adult Similarity
                                                                                  1. Growth Patterns
                                                                                  2. Indirect Development
                                                                                    1. Larval Stages
                                                                                      1. Larval Adaptations
                                                                                        1. Ecological Roles
                                                                                        2. Metamorphosis
                                                                                          1. Complete Metamorphosis
                                                                                            1. Incomplete Metamorphosis
                                                                                              1. Hormonal Control
                                                                                            2. Growth and Maturation
                                                                                              1. Determinate Growth
                                                                                                1. Indeterminate Growth
                                                                                                  1. Sexual Maturation
                                                                                                2. Reproductive Cycles and Timing
                                                                                                  1. Seasonal Breeding
                                                                                                    1. Environmental Cues
                                                                                                      1. Photoperiod Effects
                                                                                                      2. Continuous Breeding
                                                                                                        1. Life History Strategies
                                                                                                          1. r-selected Species
                                                                                                            1. K-selected Species
                                                                                                              1. Trade-offs in Reproduction

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                                                                                                          10. Thermoregulation

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                                                                                                          1. Foundational Principles of Animal Form and Function