Botany (Plant Biology)

  1. Plant Anatomy: The Organs
    1. The Root System
      1. Functions of Roots
        1. Anchorage
          1. Absorption
            1. Water Absorption
              1. Mineral Absorption
              2. Storage
                1. Conduction
                2. Types of Root Systems
                  1. Taproot System
                    1. Primary Root Dominance
                      1. Examples and Advantages
                      2. Fibrous Root System
                        1. Multiple Adventitious Roots
                          1. Examples and Advantages
                          2. Adventitious Roots
                            1. Origin and Development
                              1. Specialized Functions
                            2. Root Structure
                              1. Root Cap
                                1. Protection Function
                                  1. Gravitropic Response
                                  2. Zone of Cell Division
                                    1. Meristematic Activity
                                      1. Root Growth
                                      2. Zone of Elongation
                                        1. Cell Expansion
                                          1. Root Lengthening
                                          2. Zone of Maturation
                                            1. Root Hairs
                                              1. Structure and Function
                                                1. Surface Area Increase
                                            2. Internal Root Structure
                                              1. Dicot Root Anatomy
                                                1. Vascular Cylinder Organization
                                                  1. Cortex Structure
                                                  2. Monocot Root Anatomy
                                                    1. Vascular Bundle Arrangement
                                                      1. Ground Tissue Organization
                                                      2. Endodermis and Casparian Strip
                                                        1. Structure and Function
                                                          1. Selective Transport
                                                          2. Pericycle
                                                            1. Location and Function
                                                              1. Lateral Root Formation
                                                            2. Specialized Roots
                                                              1. Storage Roots
                                                                1. Tuberous Roots
                                                                  1. Napiform Roots
                                                                  2. Aerial Roots
                                                                    1. Epiphytic Roots
                                                                      1. Climbing Roots
                                                                      2. Prop Roots
                                                                        1. Structural Support
                                                                        2. Pneumatophores
                                                                          1. Gas Exchange Function
                                                                            1. Mangrove Adaptations
                                                                            2. Haustorial Roots
                                                                              1. Parasitic Function
                                                                                1. Nutrient Absorption
                                                                            3. The Shoot System: Stems
                                                                              1. Functions of Stems
                                                                                1. Support
                                                                                  1. Mechanical Support
                                                                                    1. Leaf and Flower Display
                                                                                    2. Conduction
                                                                                      1. Water Transport
                                                                                        1. Nutrient Transport
                                                                                        2. Storage
                                                                                          1. Carbohydrate Storage
                                                                                            1. Water Storage
                                                                                            2. Photosynthesis
                                                                                              1. Green Stem Function
                                                                                                1. Chlorophyll Presence
                                                                                              2. External Stem Morphology
                                                                                                1. Nodes and Internodes
                                                                                                  1. Leaf Attachment Points
                                                                                                    1. Stem Segments
                                                                                                    2. Buds
                                                                                                      1. Axillary Buds
                                                                                                        1. Location and Function
                                                                                                          1. Branch Formation
                                                                                                          2. Terminal Buds
                                                                                                            1. Apical Growth
                                                                                                              1. Dormancy
                                                                                                            2. Lenticels
                                                                                                              1. Gas Exchange Function
                                                                                                                1. Cork Formation
                                                                                                              2. Internal Stem Structure
                                                                                                                1. Dicot Stem Anatomy
                                                                                                                  1. Vascular Bundle Arrangement
                                                                                                                    1. Cambial Activity
                                                                                                                    2. Monocot Stem Anatomy
                                                                                                                      1. Scattered Vascular Bundles
                                                                                                                        1. Ground Tissue Organization
                                                                                                                        2. Arrangement of Vascular Bundles
                                                                                                                          1. Ring Formation
                                                                                                                            1. Scattered Pattern
                                                                                                                          2. Primary and Secondary Growth
                                                                                                                            1. Primary Growth
                                                                                                                              1. Apical Meristem Activity
                                                                                                                                1. Stem Lengthening
                                                                                                                                2. Secondary Growth
                                                                                                                                  1. Cambial Activity
                                                                                                                                    1. Stem Thickening
                                                                                                                                      1. Annual Rings
                                                                                                                                        1. Formation and Structure
                                                                                                                                          1. Age Determination
                                                                                                                                          2. Bark Formation
                                                                                                                                            1. Outer Bark
                                                                                                                                              1. Inner Bark
                                                                                                                                          3. Specialized Stems
                                                                                                                                            1. Rhizomes
                                                                                                                                              1. Underground Horizontal Stems
                                                                                                                                                1. Vegetative Reproduction
                                                                                                                                                2. Stolons
                                                                                                                                                  1. Above-ground Horizontal Stems
                                                                                                                                                    1. Runner Formation
                                                                                                                                                    2. Tubers
                                                                                                                                                      1. Underground Storage Stems
                                                                                                                                                        1. Starch Accumulation
                                                                                                                                                        2. Bulbs
                                                                                                                                                          1. Modified Shoot Structure
                                                                                                                                                            1. Scale Leaves
                                                                                                                                                            2. Corms
                                                                                                                                                              1. Solid Underground Stems
                                                                                                                                                                1. Storage Function
                                                                                                                                                                2. Cladodes
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Flattened Photosynthetic Stems
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Leaf Function
                                                                                                                                                                3. The Shoot System: Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Functions of Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Light Capture
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Carbon Fixation
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Gas Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Oxygen Release
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Carbon Dioxide Uptake
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Transpiration
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Water Loss
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Cooling Effect
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Nutrient Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Water Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                  2. External Leaf Morphology
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Blade
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lamina Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Photosynthetic Surface
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Petiole
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Leaf Stalk
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Vascular Connection
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Stipules
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Basal Appendages
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Protective Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Leaf Venation
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Parallel Venation
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Monocot Pattern
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vascular Arrangement
                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Reticulate Venation
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Dicot Pattern
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Network Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Leaf Arrangement
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Alternate
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Opposite
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Whorled
                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Simple vs. Compound Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Simple Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Single Blade
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Undivided Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Compound Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Multiple Leaflets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pinnate and Palmate Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Internal Leaf Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Epidermis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Upper Epidermis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Protective Layer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cuticle Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Lower Epidermis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Stomatal Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Gas Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Stomata and Guard Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Opening and Closing Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Transpiration Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Mesophyll
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Palisade Mesophyll
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Columnar Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Primary Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Spongy Mesophyll
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Irregular Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Gas Exchange Spaces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Vascular Bundles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Leaf Veins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Transport Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Specialized Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Tendrils
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Climbing Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Support Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Spines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Protective Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Water Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Storage Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Succulent Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Water Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Reproductive Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Plantlet Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Vegetative Reproduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Insectivorous Leaves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Carnivorous Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Nutrient Acquisition

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            3. Plant Tissues and Tissue Systems

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            5. Plant Physiology: Function and Processes