Introduction to Linguistics

  1. Historical Linguistics: Language Change
    1. Nature of Language Change
      1. Mechanisms of Change
        1. Internal Factors
          1. System Pressure
            1. Analogical Change
              1. Grammaticalization
              2. External Factors
                1. Language Contact
                  1. Social Factors
                    1. Geographic Factors
                  2. Types of Change
                    1. Phonological Change
                      1. Morphological Change
                        1. Syntactic Change
                          1. Semantic Change
                            1. Lexical Change
                            2. Regularity of Change
                              1. Sound Laws
                                1. Neogrammarian Hypothesis
                                  1. Exceptions and Analogical Change
                                2. Sound Change
                                  1. Conditioned Sound Change
                                    1. Phonetic Environment
                                      1. Assimilation Processes
                                        1. Dissimilation Processes
                                        2. Unconditioned Sound Change
                                          1. Sporadic Change
                                            1. Regular Sound Change
                                            2. Types of Sound Change
                                              1. Lenition
                                                1. Weakening Processes
                                                  1. Consonant Weakening
                                                  2. Fortition
                                                    1. Strengthening Processes
                                                      1. Consonant Strengthening
                                                      2. Vowel Changes
                                                        1. Vowel Shifts
                                                          1. Monophthongization
                                                            1. Diphthongization
                                                            2. Consonant Changes
                                                              1. Palatalization
                                                                1. Velarization
                                                                  1. Spirantization
                                                                2. Sound Change Examples
                                                                  1. Great Vowel Shift
                                                                    1. English Vowel System
                                                                      1. Chronology of Change
                                                                        1. Social Factors
                                                                        2. Germanic Sound Shifts
                                                                          1. First Germanic Sound Shift
                                                                            1. High German Sound Shift
                                                                        3. Morphological and Syntactic Change
                                                                          1. Analogical Change
                                                                            1. Proportional Analogy
                                                                              1. Paradigm Leveling
                                                                                1. Back-Formation
                                                                                2. Grammaticalization
                                                                                  1. Lexical to Grammatical
                                                                                    1. Grammatical to More Grammatical
                                                                                      1. Unidirectionality
                                                                                        1. Semantic Bleaching
                                                                                        2. Syntactic Change
                                                                                          1. Word Order Change
                                                                                            1. SOV to SVO
                                                                                              1. Auxiliary Development
                                                                                              2. Case System Changes
                                                                                                1. Case Loss
                                                                                                  1. Prepositional Development
                                                                                                2. Morphological Change
                                                                                                  1. Inflectional Loss
                                                                                                    1. Simplification
                                                                                                      1. Analytic Development
                                                                                                      2. Derivational Change
                                                                                                        1. Productivity Changes
                                                                                                          1. Morphological Reanalysis
                                                                                                      3. Semantic Change
                                                                                                        1. Types of Semantic Change
                                                                                                          1. Broadening
                                                                                                            1. Generalization
                                                                                                              1. Semantic Extension
                                                                                                              2. Narrowing
                                                                                                                1. Specialization
                                                                                                                  1. Semantic Restriction
                                                                                                                  2. Amelioration
                                                                                                                    1. Positive Development
                                                                                                                      1. Status Improvement
                                                                                                                      2. Pejoration
                                                                                                                        1. Negative Development
                                                                                                                          1. Status Degradation
                                                                                                                        2. Mechanisms of Semantic Change
                                                                                                                          1. Metaphor
                                                                                                                            1. Conceptual Mapping
                                                                                                                              1. Systematic Extensions
                                                                                                                              2. Metonymy
                                                                                                                                1. Contiguity Relations
                                                                                                                                  1. Part-Whole Relations
                                                                                                                                  2. Semantic Bleaching
                                                                                                                                    1. Meaning Loss
                                                                                                                                      1. Grammaticalization
                                                                                                                                    2. Cultural Factors
                                                                                                                                      1. Social Change
                                                                                                                                        1. Technological Change
                                                                                                                                          1. Cultural Contact
                                                                                                                                        2. Comparative Method
                                                                                                                                          1. Principles of Comparison
                                                                                                                                            1. Systematic Correspondences
                                                                                                                                              1. Sound Laws
                                                                                                                                                1. Shared Innovations
                                                                                                                                                2. Reconstruction Techniques
                                                                                                                                                  1. Proto-Language Reconstruction
                                                                                                                                                    1. Comparative Evidence
                                                                                                                                                      1. Internal Reconstruction
                                                                                                                                                      2. Sound Correspondences
                                                                                                                                                        1. Regular Correspondences
                                                                                                                                                          1. Conditioned Changes
                                                                                                                                                        2. Language Classification
                                                                                                                                                          1. Genetic Classification
                                                                                                                                                            1. Language Families
                                                                                                                                                              1. Subgrouping
                                                                                                                                                              2. Typological Classification
                                                                                                                                                                1. Structural Similarities
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Areal Features
                                                                                                                                                                2. Major Language Families
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Indo-European
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Branches and Languages
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Proto-Indo-European
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Historical Development
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Sino-Tibetan
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Chinese Languages
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Tibeto-Burman
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Niger-Congo
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bantu Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                1. West African Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Austronesian
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Pacific Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Malayo-Polynesian
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Trans-New Guinea
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Papuan Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Highland Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Afro-Asiatic
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Semitic Languages
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Egyptian and Berber
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Limitations of Comparative Method
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Time Depth
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Borrowing vs. Inheritance
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Chance Resemblances
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Areal Convergence

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                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Introduction to Linguistics