Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy

  1. The Circulatory System
    1. Blood and Blood Vessels
      1. Arteries
        1. Structure
          1. Function
            1. Elastic Properties
            2. Veins
              1. Structure
                1. Function
                  1. Valves
                  2. Capillaries
                    1. Structure
                      1. Function
                        1. Gas Exchange
                        2. Blood Cells
                          1. Erythrocytes
                            1. Structure
                              1. Function
                                1. Oxygen Transport
                                2. Leukocytes
                                  1. Types
                                    1. Immune Function
                                    2. Thrombocytes
                                      1. Clotting Function
                                  2. The Heart
                                    1. Embryonic Development
                                      1. Heart Tube Formation
                                        1. Septation Process
                                          1. Chamber Development
                                          2. Comparative Heart Structure
                                            1. Single-Circuit Circulation in Fishes
                                              1. Two-Chambered Heart
                                                1. Blood Flow Pattern
                                                2. Transition to Double-Circuit Circulation
                                                  1. Evolutionary Advantages
                                                  2. Three-Chambered Heart
                                                    1. Amphibians
                                                      1. Most Reptiles
                                                        1. Partial Separation
                                                        2. Four-Chambered Heart
                                                          1. Crocodilians
                                                            1. Birds
                                                              1. Mammals
                                                                1. Complete Separation
                                                            2. Arterial System
                                                              1. Evolution of the Aortic Arches
                                                                1. Primitive Pattern
                                                                  1. Fate in Fishes
                                                                    1. Fate in Amphibians
                                                                      1. Fate in Reptiles
                                                                        1. Fate in Birds
                                                                          1. Fate in Mammals
                                                                        2. Venous System
                                                                          1. Systemic Veins
                                                                            1. Major Veins
                                                                              1. Return Pathways
                                                                                1. Regional Variations
                                                                                2. Hepatic Portal System
                                                                                  1. Structure
                                                                                    1. Function
                                                                                      1. Evolutionary Significance
                                                                                      2. Renal Portal System
                                                                                        1. Structure
                                                                                          1. Function
                                                                                            1. Distribution Among Vertebrates
                                                                                          2. The Lymphatic System
                                                                                            1. Lymph Vessels
                                                                                              1. Structure
                                                                                                1. Function
                                                                                                2. Lymph Nodes
                                                                                                  1. Structure
                                                                                                    1. Immune Function
                                                                                                    2. Lymphoid Organs
                                                                                                      1. Spleen
                                                                                                        1. Thymus
                                                                                                          1. Bursa of Fabricius

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                                                                                                      7. The Respiratory System

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                                                                                                      9. The Urogenital System