Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy

13.

Synthesis of Form Function and Evolution

13.1.

Major Evolutionary Transitions

13.1.1.

The Origin of Vertebrates

13.1.1.1.

Early Chordates

13.1.1.2.

Vertebrate Ancestors

13.1.1.3.

Key Innovations

13.1.2.

The Conquest of Land

13.1.2.1.

Anatomical Adaptations for Terrestrial Life

13.1.2.2.

Respiratory Adaptations

13.1.2.3.

Locomotory Adaptations

13.1.2.4.

Reproductive Adaptations

13.1.3.

The Amniotic Egg

13.1.3.1.

13.1.3.2.

13.1.3.3.

Evolutionary Advantages

13.1.4.

The Evolution of Flight

13.1.4.1.

Morphological Changes in Birds

13.1.4.2.

Morphological Changes in Bats

13.1.4.3.

Convergent Adaptations

13.1.5.

The Evolution of Endothermy

13.1.5.1.

Physiological Adaptations

13.1.5.2.

Anatomical Adaptations

13.1.5.3.

Metabolic Consequences

13.2.

Functional Morphology and Biomechanics

13.2.1.

Principles of Levers and Forces

13.2.1.1.

Lever Systems in Vertebrate Movement

13.2.1.2.

Mechanical Advantage

13.2.1.3.

Force Transmission

13.2.2.

Scaling Effects

13.2.2.1.

13.2.2.2.

13.2.2.3.

Effects of Size on Structure

13.2.2.4.

Effects of Size on Function

13.2.3.

Locomotion in Different Media

13.2.3.1.

Aquatic Locomotion

13.2.3.1.1.

Swimming Mechanisms

13.2.3.1.2.

Body Form Adaptations

13.2.3.2.

Terrestrial Locomotion

13.2.3.2.1.

Walking and Running

13.2.3.2.2.

Limb Adaptations

13.2.3.3.

Aerial Locomotion

13.2.3.3.1.

Flight Mechanisms

13.2.3.3.2.

Wing Adaptations

13.3.

Linking Anatomy to Ecology and Phylogeny

13.3.1.

Adaptive Radiation

13.3.1.1.

Ecological Niches

13.3.1.2.

Morphological Diversification

13.3.2.

Phylogenetic Constraints

13.3.2.1.

Constraints on Form

13.3.2.2.

Constraints on Function

13.3.3.

Integrating Comparative Anatomy with Evolutionary History

13.3.3.1.

Fossil Evidence

13.3.3.2.

Molecular Evidence

13.3.3.3.

Developmental Evidence

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12. The Endocrine System

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1. Introduction to Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy