Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy

  1. The Skeletal System
    1. Divisions of the Skeleton
      1. Exoskeleton
        1. Dermal Bone
          1. Placoid Scales
            1. External Armor
            2. Endoskeleton
              1. Cartilaginous Elements
                1. Bony Elements
                  1. Internal Support
                2. Tissues of the Skeleton
                  1. Cartilage
                    1. Hyaline Cartilage
                      1. Elastic Cartilage
                        1. Fibrocartilage
                          1. Growth Mechanisms
                            1. Repair Mechanisms
                            2. Bone
                              1. Endochondral Ossification
                                1. Process
                                  1. Timing
                                  2. Intramembranous Ossification
                                    1. Process
                                    2. Bone Remodeling
                                      1. Osteoblasts
                                        1. Osteoclasts
                                          1. Maintenance
                                      2. The Cranial Skeleton
                                        1. Chondrocranium
                                          1. Development
                                            1. Components
                                              1. Cartilaginous Elements
                                              2. Splanchnocranium
                                                1. Pharyngeal Arch Derivatives
                                                  1. Evolution of Gill Arches
                                                    1. Transformation into Jaws
                                                      1. Transformation into Ear Bones
                                                      2. Evolution of the Jaw
                                                        1. Origin
                                                          1. Modifications
                                                            1. Functional Adaptations
                                                          2. Dermatocranium
                                                            1. Dermal Bone Contributions
                                                              1. Skull Roofing Elements
                                                                1. Facial Elements
                                                                2. Composite Skull
                                                                  1. Integration of Cranial Components
                                                                    1. Functional Unity
                                                                    2. Jaw Suspension Types
                                                                      1. Autostylic Suspension
                                                                        1. Amphistylic Suspension
                                                                          1. Hyostylic Suspension
                                                                          2. Cranial Kinesis
                                                                            1. Types of Movement
                                                                              1. Functional Significance
                                                                              2. Evolution of the Mammalian Middle Ear
                                                                                1. Transformation of Jaw Elements
                                                                                  1. Hearing Adaptations
                                                                                  2. Comparative Skull Fenestration
                                                                                    1. Anapsid Condition
                                                                                      1. Synapsid Condition
                                                                                        1. Diapsid Condition
                                                                                          1. Euryapsid Condition
                                                                                        2. The Axial Skeleton
                                                                                          1. The Notochord
                                                                                            1. Persistence in Different Groups
                                                                                              1. Replacement by Vertebrae
                                                                                                1. Remnants in Adults
                                                                                                2. The Vertebral Column
                                                                                                  1. Structure of a Vertebra
                                                                                                    1. Centrum
                                                                                                      1. Neural Arch
                                                                                                        1. Processes
                                                                                                        2. Regional Differentiation
                                                                                                          1. Cervical Vertebrae
                                                                                                            1. Thoracic Vertebrae
                                                                                                              1. Lumbar Vertebrae
                                                                                                                1. Sacral Vertebrae
                                                                                                                  1. Caudal Vertebrae
                                                                                                                  2. Comparative Centra Types
                                                                                                                    1. Acoelous Vertebrae
                                                                                                                      1. Amphicoelous Vertebrae
                                                                                                                        1. Procoelous Vertebrae
                                                                                                                          1. Opisthocoelous Vertebrae
                                                                                                                            1. Heterocoelous Vertebrae
                                                                                                                          2. Ribs
                                                                                                                            1. Structure
                                                                                                                              1. Function
                                                                                                                                1. Variations Among Vertebrates
                                                                                                                                  1. Attachment to Vertebrae
                                                                                                                                  2. Sternum
                                                                                                                                    1. Development
                                                                                                                                      1. Modifications
                                                                                                                                        1. Function in Respiration
                                                                                                                                      2. The Appendicular Skeleton
                                                                                                                                        1. Paired Fins
                                                                                                                                          1. Types
                                                                                                                                            1. Structure
                                                                                                                                              1. Evolutionary Significance
                                                                                                                                                1. Support Elements
                                                                                                                                                2. The Origin of Tetrapod Limbs
                                                                                                                                                  1. Limb Structure
                                                                                                                                                    1. Patterning
                                                                                                                                                      1. Transition from Fins
                                                                                                                                                      2. The Pectoral Girdle
                                                                                                                                                        1. Components
                                                                                                                                                          1. Evolution
                                                                                                                                                            1. Attachment to Axial Skeleton
                                                                                                                                                            2. The Pelvic Girdle
                                                                                                                                                              1. Components
                                                                                                                                                                1. Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Attachment to Vertebral Column
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Limb Modifications for Locomotion
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cursorial Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Limb Elongation
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Digit Reduction
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Joint Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Fossorial Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Robust Bones
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Muscle Attachments
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Digging Specializations
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Saltatorial Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Limb Proportions
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Muscle Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Joint Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Arboreal Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Prehensile Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Grasping Abilities
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Volant Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Wing Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bone Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Flight Mechanics
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Aquatic Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Flippers
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Paddle-like Limbs
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Streamlining

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                                                                                                                                                                                                3. The Integumentary System

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                                                                                                                                                                                                5. The Muscular System