Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy

  1. The Respiratory System
    1. Organs of Gas Exchange
      1. Cutaneous Respiration
        1. Mechanisms
          1. Limitations
          2. Gills
            1. Internal Gills
              1. Structure
                1. Function
                  1. Water Flow
                  2. External Gills
                    1. Occurrence
                      1. Adaptations
                        1. Temporary Nature
                      2. Gas Bladders
                        1. Structure
                          1. Evolutionary Origin
                            1. Functions
                            2. Lungs
                              1. Structure
                                1. Evolutionary Origin
                                  1. Gas Exchange Mechanisms
                                2. Ventilatory Mechanisms
                                  1. Ciliary Action
                                    1. Role in Early Vertebrates
                                      1. Limitations
                                      2. Water Ventilation
                                        1. Dual Pump System
                                          1. Buccal Pump
                                            1. Opercular Pump
                                            2. Air Ventilation
                                              1. Buccal Pump in Amphibians
                                                1. Mechanism
                                                  1. Efficiency
                                                  2. Aspiration Pump in Amniotes
                                                    1. Rib Movements
                                                      1. Diaphragm Function
                                                  3. Comparative Respiratory Anatomy
                                                    1. Agnathans
                                                      1. Pouched Gills
                                                        1. Ventilation Mechanisms
                                                        2. Gnathostome Fishes
                                                          1. Gill Arches
                                                            1. Operculum
                                                              1. Counter-current Flow
                                                              2. Amphibians
                                                                1. Lungs
                                                                  1. Cutaneous Exchange
                                                                    1. Buccal Ventilation
                                                                    2. Reptiles
                                                                      1. Lung Structure
                                                                        1. Ventilation Mechanisms
                                                                          1. Efficiency
                                                                          2. Mammals
                                                                            1. Diaphragm Function
                                                                              1. Alveolar Lungs
                                                                                1. Gas Exchange Efficiency
                                                                                2. Birds
                                                                                  1. Air Sacs
                                                                                    1. Structure
                                                                                      1. Function
                                                                                      2. Parabronchi
                                                                                        1. Gas Exchange Sites
                                                                                        2. Unidirectional Airflow
                                                                                          1. Efficiency
                                                                                            1. Mechanism

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                                                                                      6. The Digestive System

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                                                                                      8. The Circulatory System