Climate Change

Climate change refers to the long-term, significant alteration of global and regional climate patterns, a critical area of study within atmospheric and Earth sciences. While Earth's climate has varied naturally, the current rapid warming is overwhelmingly driven by human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, which releases greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat, leading to a rise in global average temperatures and causing a cascade of effects, including more frequent and intense extreme weather events, melting ice sheets, rising sea levels, and significant disruptions to both natural ecosystems and human societies.

1. Foundations of Climate Science
   1. Defining Climate and Weather
      1. Definition of Weather
      2. Definition of Climate
      3. Distinction between Climate and Weather
      4. Timescales of Weather and Climate
      5. Spatial Scales of Weather and Climate
   2. Climate System Components
      1. Atmosphere
         1. Structure and Layers of the Atmosphere
         2. Atmospheric Circulation Patterns
         3. Role in Energy Transfer
         4. Atmospheric Chemistry
      2. Hydrosphere
         1. Oceans and Seas
         2. Lakes and Rivers
         3. Water Cycle Processes
         4. Ocean Circulation Systems
      3. Cryosphere
         1. Glaciers and Ice Sheets
         2. Sea Ice
         3. Snow Cover
         4. Permafrost
         5. Ice-Albedo Feedback
      4. Lithosphere
         1. Land Surface Processes
         2. Volcanic Activity
         3. Plate Tectonics and Climate
         4. Weathering Processes
      5. Biosphere
         1. Vegetation and Land Cover
         2. Role of Organisms in Carbon Cycle
         3. Human Influence on Biosphere
         4. Ecosystem Services
   3. The Greenhouse Effect
      1. Natural Greenhouse Effect
         1. Mechanism of Heat Trapping
         2. Key Greenhouse Gases in Natural State
         3. Radiative Forcing Concepts
      2. Role of Solar Radiation
         1. Solar Constant
         2. Absorption and Reflection of Solar Energy
         3. Albedo Effect
         4. Seasonal and Latitudinal Variations
      3. Earth's Energy Budget
         1. Incoming Solar Radiation
         2. Outgoing Longwave Radiation
         3. Energy Balance and Imbalance
         4. Radiative Equilibrium
      4. Atmospheric Composition
         1. Major Gases
         2. Trace Gases
         3. Aerosols and Particulates
         4. Atmospheric Lifetime of Gases
   4. Greenhouse Gases
      1. Carbon Dioxide
         1. Natural Sources and Sinks
         2. Anthropogenic Sources
         3. Atmospheric Concentration Trends
         4. Carbon Cycle Dynamics
      2. Methane
         1. Natural Sources and Sinks
         2. Anthropogenic Sources
         3. Atmospheric Chemistry and Lifetime
      3. Nitrous Oxide
         1. Natural Sources and Sinks
         2. Anthropogenic Sources
         3. Nitrogen Cycle Interactions
      4. Fluorinated Gases
         1. Hydrofluorocarbons
         2. Perfluorocarbons
         3. Sulfur Hexafluoride
         4. Nitrogen Trifluoride
         5. Industrial Uses and Emission Pathways
      5. Water Vapor
         1. Role as Feedback Mechanism
         2. Relationship to Temperature
         3. Saturation Vapor Pressure
      6. Ozone
         1. Stratospheric Ozone
         2. Tropospheric Ozone
         3. Ozone Depletion and Climate Interactions
   5. Global Warming Potential and Climate Metrics
      1. Global Warming Potential
         1. Definition and Calculation
         2. Time Horizons
         3. Limitations and Alternatives
      2. Global Temperature Potential
      3. Radiative Forcing
      4. Carbon Dioxide Equivalents
   6. Earth's Climate History
      1. Paleoclimate Reconstruction Methods
         1. Ice Core Analysis
         2. Sediment Cores
         3. Tree Rings
         4. Pollen Analysis
         5. Coral Records
         6. Isotope Analysis
      2. Major Climate Periods
         1. Precambrian Climate
         2. Paleozoic Climate
         3. Mesozoic Climate
         4. Cenozoic Climate
         5. Quaternary Ice Ages
         6. Holocene Climate
         7. Anthropocene
      3. Natural Climate Variability
         1. Orbital Cycles
         2. Solar Variability
         3. Volcanic Influences
         4. Ocean-Atmosphere Oscillations
      4. Lessons from Past Climate Changes
         1. Rapid Climate Transitions
         2. Climate Sensitivity Estimates
         3. Ecosystem Responses