Cell Signaling and Signal Transduction

8.

Regulation and Integration of Cellular Signals

8.1.

Signal Amplification

8.1.1.

Mechanisms of Amplification at Each Step

8.1.2.

Biological Significance

8.2.

Signal Integration and Crosstalk

8.2.1.

Convergence of Multiple Pathways

8.2.2.

Divergence to Multiple Effectors

8.2.3.

Crosstalk between Distinct Pathways

8.2.4.

Modulation by Feedback Loops

8.2.5.

Modulation by Feedforward Loops

8.3.

Signal Termination and Desensitization

8.3.1.

Ligand Degradation

8.3.2.

8.3.3.

Receptor Internalization

8.3.4.

Receptor Downregulation

8.3.5.

Inactivation of Signaling Proteins

8.3.6.

Negative Feedback Loops

8.3.7.

Receptor Desensitization Mechanisms

8.3.7.1.

Phosphorylation by GRKs

8.3.7.2.

Arrestin Binding

8.4.

Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Signaling

8.4.1.

Signaling Microdomains

8.4.1.1.

8.4.1.2.

8.4.2.

Oscillations and Waves

8.4.2.1.

Calcium Oscillations

8.4.2.2.

Spatial Gradients of Second Messengers

8.4.3.

Compartmentalization of Signaling Components

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7. Intracellular Signaling Components and Mechanisms

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9. Cellular Responses to Signaling