Regulation and Integration of Cellular Signals

Mechanisms of Amplification at Each Step

Biological Significance

Convergence of Multiple Pathways

Divergence to Multiple Effectors

Crosstalk between Distinct Pathways

Modulation by Feedback Loops

Modulation by Feedforward Loops

Ligand Degradation

Ligand Removal

Receptor Internalization

Receptor Downregulation

Inactivation of Signaling Proteins

Negative Feedback Loops

Receptor Desensitization Mechanisms

Signaling Microdomains

Oscillations and Waves

Compartmentalization of Signaling Components