Biomedical Science

Biomedical science is a broad, interdisciplinary field that applies principles from biology and other natural sciences to medicine and healthcare. It focuses on understanding the biological mechanisms of the human body in health and disease, utilizing knowledge from areas like physiology, microbiology, genetics, and pharmacology to develop new diagnostic tools, therapies, and strategies for disease prevention. This field forms the critical research and laboratory-based foundation that underpins clinical practice, driving advancements in medicine, dentistry, and veterinary science.

1. Foundations of Biomedical Science
   1. Fundamental Chemistry
      1. Atomic Structure and Bonding
         1. Structure of Atoms
            1. Subatomic Particles
            2. Atomic Number and Mass Number
            3. Isotopes and Radioisotopes
         2. Electron Configuration
            1. Electron Shells and Orbitals
            2. Aufbau Principle
            3. Hund's Rule
            4. Pauli Exclusion Principle
         3. Types of Chemical Bonds
            1. Ionic Bonds
               1. Formation and Properties
               2. Lattice Energy
            2. Covalent Bonds
               1. Single, Double, and Triple Bonds
               2. Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
               3. Bond Length and Bond Energy
            3. Hydrogen Bonds
               1. Formation and Strength
               2. Biological Significance
            4. van der Waals Forces
               1. London Dispersion Forces
               2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
      2. Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
         1. Types of Chemical Reactions
            1. Synthesis Reactions
            2. Decomposition Reactions
            3. Single Replacement Reactions
            4. Double Replacement Reactions
            5. Combustion Reactions
            6. Redox Reactions
         2. Balancing Chemical Equations
            1. Conservation of Mass
            2. Balancing by Inspection
            3. Balancing Redox Equations
         3. Moles and Molar Mass
            1. Avogadro's Number
            2. Molar Mass Calculations
            3. Percent Composition
         4. Calculating Reactants and Products
            1. Stoichiometric Ratios
            2. Limiting Reagents
            3. Theoretical and Actual Yield
      3. Solutions, Acids, and Bases
         1. Properties of Solutions
            1. Solute and Solvent
            2. Solubility and Saturation
            3. Factors Affecting Solubility
         2. Concentration Units
            1. Molarity
            2. Molality
            3. Mass Percent
            4. Parts Per Million
         3. Acids and Bases Definitions
            1. Arrhenius Theory
            2. Brønsted-Lowry Theory
            3. Lewis Theory
         4. pH and pOH
            1. pH Scale
            2. Calculating pH and pOH
            3. Strong vs Weak Acids and Bases
         5. Buffer Systems
            1. Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
            2. Buffer Capacity
            3. Physiological Buffer Systems
      4. Thermodynamics and Chemical Kinetics
         1. Laws of Thermodynamics
            1. First Law of Thermodynamics
            2. Second Law of Thermodynamics
            3. Third Law of Thermodynamics
         2. Enthalpy, Entropy, and Free Energy
            1. Enthalpy Changes
            2. Entropy and Spontaneity
            3. Gibbs Free Energy
            4. Relationship Between Thermodynamic Parameters
         3. Activation Energy
            1. Energy Diagrams
            2. Transition States
            3. Effect on Reaction Rate
         4. Reaction Rates
            1. Rate Laws
            2. Order of Reactions
            3. Half-Life
         5. Catalysts and Enzyme Catalysis
            1. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysts
            2. Enzyme Specificity
            3. Enzyme-Substrate Complex
   2. Organic Chemistry
      1. Structure and Bonding of Organic Molecules
         1. Hybridization
            1. sp3 Hybridization
            2. sp2 Hybridization
            3. sp Hybridization
         2. Resonance Structures
            1. Rules for Drawing Resonance Structures
            2. Resonance Stabilization
         3. Isomerism
            1. Structural Isomers
            2. Constitutional Isomers
            3. Conformational Isomers
      2. Functional Groups
         1. Hydrocarbons
            1. Alkanes
               1. Structure and Nomenclature
               2. Physical Properties
               3. Chemical Reactions
            2. Alkenes
               1. Structure and Nomenclature
               2. Addition Reactions
            3. Alkynes
               1. Structure and Nomenclature
               2. Addition Reactions
            4. Aromatic Compounds
               1. Benzene Structure
               2. Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution
         2. Alcohols and Ethers
            1. Structure and Classification
            2. Physical Properties
            3. Chemical Reactions
         3. Aldehydes and Ketones
            1. Structure and Nomenclature
            2. Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
            3. Oxidation and Reduction
         4. Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
            1. Carboxylic Acids
            2. Esters
            3. Amides
            4. Acid Chlorides
            5. Anhydrides
         5. Amines and Amides
            1. Classification of Amines
            2. Basicity of Amines
            3. Amide Formation and Hydrolysis
         6. Thiols and Sulfides
            1. Structure and Properties
            2. Disulfide Bonds
      3. Stereochemistry
         1. Chirality and Enantiomers
            1. Chiral Centers
            2. R and S Configuration
            3. Enantiomeric Excess
         2. Diastereomers
            1. Meso Compounds
            2. Multiple Chiral Centers
         3. Optical Activity
            1. Polarimetry
            2. Specific Rotation
         4. Geometric Isomerism
            1. Cis-Trans Isomerism
            2. E-Z Nomenclature
      4. Major Reaction Mechanisms
         1. Nucleophilic Substitution
            1. SN1 Mechanism
            2. SN2 Mechanism
            3. Factors Affecting Substitution
         2. Electrophilic Addition
            1. Addition to Alkenes
            2. Markovnikov's Rule
            3. Anti-Markovnikov Addition
         3. Elimination Reactions
            1. E1 Mechanism
            2. E2 Mechanism
            3. Zaitsev's Rule
         4. Oxidation and Reduction
            1. Oxidation States
            2. Common Oxidizing Agents
            3. Common Reducing Agents
         5. Polymerization
            1. Addition Polymerization
            2. Condensation Polymerization
   3. Biochemistry: The Molecules of Life
      1. Carbohydrates
         1. Monosaccharides
            1. Structure and Classification
            2. D and L Configuration
            3. Cyclic Forms and Anomers
         2. Disaccharides
            1. Glycosidic Bonds
            2. Common Disaccharides
            3. Reducing and Non-reducing Sugars
         3. Polysaccharides
            1. Storage Polysaccharides
               1. Starch Structure and Function
               2. Glycogen Structure and Function
            2. Structural Polysaccharides
               1. Cellulose Structure and Function
               2. Chitin Structure and Function
               3. Peptidoglycan
      2. Lipids
         1. Fatty Acids and Triglycerides
            1. Saturated Fatty Acids
            2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
            3. Essential Fatty Acids
            4. Triglyceride Structure
            5. Functions of Triglycerides
         2. Phospholipids
            1. Structure of Phospholipids
            2. Types of Phospholipids
            3. Role in Cell Membranes
         3. Steroids
            1. Cholesterol Structure and Function
            2. Steroid Hormones
            3. Bile Acids
         4. Membrane Structure and Function
            1. Fluid Mosaic Model
            2. Membrane Asymmetry
            3. Membrane Proteins
               1. Integral Proteins
               2. Peripheral Proteins
            4. Membrane Transport Mechanisms
               1. Passive Transport
               2. Active Transport
               3. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
      3. Proteins
         1. Amino Acids
            1. Structure of Amino Acids
            2. Classification of Amino Acids
            3. Essential and Non-essential Amino Acids
            4. Amino Acid Properties
         2. Peptide Bonds
            1. Formation of Peptide Bonds
            2. Peptide Bond Characteristics
            3. Polypeptide Chains
         3. Protein Structure
            1. Primary Structure
               1. Amino Acid Sequence
               2. Peptide Mapping
            2. Secondary Structure
               1. Alpha Helix
               2. Beta Sheet
               3. Beta Turns and Loops
            3. Tertiary Structure
               1. Protein Folding Forces
               2. Domains and Motifs
            4. Quaternary Structure
               1. Subunit Assembly
               2. Allosteric Interactions
         4. Protein Folding and Denaturation
            1. Folding Pathways
            2. Molecular Chaperones
            3. Heat Shock Proteins
            4. Protein Misfolding Diseases
            5. Causes of Denaturation
            6. Reversible and Irreversible Denaturation
      4. Nucleic Acids
         1. Nucleotides
            1. Structure of Nucleotides
            2. Purine and Pyrimidine Bases
            3. Nucleoside vs Nucleotide
            4. Nucleotide Synthesis Pathways
         2. DNA Structure and Function
            1. Double Helix Model
            2. Base Pairing Rules
            3. DNA Supercoiling
            4. DNA Replication
               1. Semiconservative Replication
               2. Replication Machinery
            5. DNA Repair Mechanisms
               1. Mismatch Repair
               2. Base Excision Repair
               3. Nucleotide Excision Repair
         3. RNA Structure and Types
            1. RNA vs DNA Differences
            2. mRNA Structure and Function
            3. tRNA Structure and Function
            4. rRNA Structure and Function
            5. Non-coding RNAs
               1. microRNA
               2. long non-coding RNA
               3. small interfering RNA
      5. Enzymes
         1. Enzyme Classification
            1. Six Major Classes
            2. Enzyme Nomenclature
         2. Enzyme Kinetics
            1. Michaelis-Menten Equation
            2. Km and Vmax
            3. Lineweaver-Burk Plot
            4. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
               1. Temperature
               2. pH
               3. Substrate Concentration
               4. Inhibitors
         3. Mechanisms of Catalysis
            1. Active Site Structure
            2. Induced Fit Model
            3. Transition State Stabilization
            4. Cofactors and Coenzymes
         4. Regulation of Enzyme Activity
            1. Allosteric Regulation
               1. Positive and Negative Effectors
               2. Cooperative Binding
            2. Covalent Modification
               1. Phosphorylation
               2. Methylation
               3. Acetylation
            3. Feedback Inhibition
            4. Enzyme Induction and Repression
   4. Cell Biology
      1. Cell Theory and Organization
         1. Principles of Cell Theory
         2. Prokaryotic Cells
            1. Bacterial Cell Structure
            2. Archaeal Cell Structure
         3. Eukaryotic Cells
            1. Plant vs Animal Cells
            2. Cell Size and Shape
      2. Cellular Organelles and Function
         1. Nucleus
            1. Nuclear Envelope
               1. Nuclear Pores
               2. Nuclear Lamina
            2. Nucleolus
               1. rRNA Synthesis
               2. Ribosome Assembly
            3. Chromatin Organization
               1. Heterochromatin vs Euchromatin
               2. Chromosome Structure
         2. Mitochondria
            1. Mitochondrial Structure
               1. Outer and Inner Membranes
               2. Matrix and Cristae
            2. ATP Synthesis
            3. Mitochondrial DNA
            4. Mitochondrial Biogenesis
         3. Endoplasmic Reticulum
            1. Rough ER
               1. Ribosome Binding
               2. Protein Synthesis and Modification
            2. Smooth ER
               1. Lipid Synthesis
               2. Detoxification
               3. Calcium Storage
         4. Golgi Apparatus
            1. Structure and Organization
            2. Protein Modification
            3. Protein Sorting and Packaging
            4. Vesicle Formation
         5. Lysosomes
            1. Lysosome Formation
            2. Digestive Enzymes
            3. Autophagy
            4. Lysosomal Storage Diseases
         6. Peroxisomes
            1. Peroxisome Function
            2. Fatty Acid Oxidation
            3. Detoxification Reactions
         7. Ribosomes
            1. Ribosome Structure
            2. Free vs Bound Ribosomes
            3. Protein Synthesis
      3. The Cytoskeleton
         1. Microtubules
            1. Tubulin Structure
            2. Microtubule Organization
            3. Functions in Cell Division
         2. Microfilaments
            1. Actin Structure
            2. Actin Polymerization
            3. Role in Cell Movement
         3. Intermediate Filaments
            1. Types of Intermediate Filaments
            2. Structural Support
         4. Motor Proteins
            1. Kinesin
            2. Dynein
            3. Myosin
      4. Cell Cycle and Cell Division
         1. Phases of the Cell Cycle
            1. G1 Phase
            2. S Phase
            3. G2 Phase
            4. M Phase
            5. G0 Phase
         2. Cell Cycle Regulation
            1. Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent Kinases
            2. Cell Cycle Checkpoints
            3. Tumor Suppressor Proteins
         3. Mitosis
            1. Prophase
            2. Metaphase
            3. Anaphase
            4. Telophase
            5. Cytokinesis
            6. Mitotic Spindle Formation
         4. Meiosis
            1. Meiosis I
               1. Prophase I
               2. Metaphase I
               3. Anaphase I
               4. Telophase I
            2. Meiosis II
            3. Crossing Over and Recombination
            4. Independent Assortment
      5. Cell Communication and Signaling
         1. Types of Cell Signaling
            1. Autocrine Signaling
            2. Paracrine Signaling
            3. Endocrine Signaling
            4. Juxtacrine Signaling
         2. Signal Transduction Pathways
            1. Signal Reception
            2. Signal Transduction
            3. Cellular Response
         3. Second Messengers
            1. Cyclic AMP
            2. Calcium Ions
            3. Inositol Phosphates
         4. Types of Receptors
            1. G-Protein Coupled Receptors
            2. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
            3. Ion Channel Receptors
            4. Nuclear Receptors