Biomedical Science

2.

Human Anatomy and Physiology

2.1.

Introduction to Human Body Organization

2.1.1.

Anatomical Position and Terminology

2.1.2.

Body Cavities and Membranes

2.1.3.

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

2.1.4.

Levels of Organization

2.1.4.1.

2.1.4.2.

2.1.4.3.

2.1.4.4.

2.1.4.5.

2.2.

2.2.1.

Epithelial Tissue

2.2.1.1.

Classification by Shape

2.2.1.1.1.

Squamous Epithelium

2.2.1.1.2.

Cuboidal Epithelium

2.2.1.1.3.

Columnar Epithelium

2.2.1.2.

Classification by Layers

2.2.1.2.1.

Simple Epithelium

2.2.1.2.2.

Stratified Epithelium

2.2.1.2.3.

Pseudostratified Epithelium

2.2.1.3.

Specialized Epithelial Structures

2.2.1.3.1.

Glandular Epithelium

2.2.1.3.1.1.

Exocrine Glands

2.2.1.3.1.2.

Endocrine Glands

2.2.2.

Connective Tissue

2.2.2.1.

Connective Tissue Proper

2.2.2.1.1.

Loose Connective Tissue

2.2.2.1.2.

Dense Connective Tissue

2.2.2.2.

Specialized Connective Tissues

2.2.2.2.1.

2.2.2.2.1.1.

Hyaline Cartilage

2.2.2.2.1.2.

Elastic Cartilage

2.2.2.2.1.3.

2.2.2.2.2.

2.2.2.2.2.1.

2.2.2.2.2.2.

2.2.2.2.3.

2.2.2.2.3.1.

2.2.2.2.3.2.

Formed Elements

2.2.2.3.

Extracellular Matrix Components

2.2.2.3.1.

Collagen Fibers

2.2.2.3.2.

2.2.2.3.3.

Ground Substance

2.2.3.

2.2.3.1.

Skeletal Muscle

2.2.3.1.1.

Structure and Organization

2.2.3.1.2.

Contraction Mechanism

2.2.3.1.3.

2.2.3.2.

2.2.3.2.1.

Structure and Properties

2.2.3.2.2.

Intercalated Discs

2.2.3.2.3.

Autorhythmicity

2.2.3.3.

2.2.3.3.1.

Structure and Properties

2.2.3.3.2.

Single-unit vs Multi-unit

2.2.3.3.3.

Regulation of Contraction

2.2.4.

2.2.4.1.

2.2.4.1.1.

Neuron Structure

2.2.4.1.2.

Types of Neurons

2.2.4.1.3.

Nerve Impulse Conduction

2.2.4.2.

2.2.4.2.1.

CNS Glial Cells

2.2.4.2.1.1.

2.2.4.2.1.2.

Oligodendrocytes

2.2.4.2.1.3.

2.2.4.2.1.4.

Ependymal Cells

2.2.4.2.2.

PNS Glial Cells

2.2.4.2.2.1.

2.2.4.2.2.2.

Satellite Cells

2.3.

The Integumentary System

2.3.1.

Structure of Skin

2.3.1.1.

2.3.1.1.1.

Layers of Epidermis

2.3.1.1.2.

2.3.1.2.

2.3.1.2.1.

Papillary Layer

2.3.1.2.2.

Reticular Layer

2.3.1.3.

2.3.2.

Functions of the Integument

2.3.2.1.

2.3.2.2.

Temperature Regulation

2.3.2.3.

2.3.2.4.

Vitamin D Synthesis

2.3.2.5.

2.3.3.

Accessory Structures

2.3.3.1.

2.3.3.1.1.

2.3.3.1.2.

Hair Growth Cycle

2.3.3.2.

2.3.3.2.1.

2.3.3.2.2.

2.3.3.3.

2.3.3.3.1.

Sebaceous Glands

2.3.3.3.2.

2.3.4.

2.3.4.1.

Inflammatory Conditions

2.3.4.2.

Infectious Diseases

2.3.4.3.

2.4.

The Skeletal System

2.4.1.

Bone Structure and Function

2.4.1.1.

Bone Composition

2.4.1.1.1.

2.4.1.1.2.

Inorganic Matrix

2.4.1.2.

2.4.1.2.1.

2.4.1.2.2.

2.4.1.2.3.

2.4.1.3.

Bone Architecture

2.4.1.3.1.

Compact Bone Organization

2.4.1.3.2.

Spongy Bone Organization

2.4.2.

2.4.2.1.

2.4.2.2.

2.4.2.3.

2.4.2.4.

Irregular Bones

2.4.2.5.

2.4.3.

Bone Development and Growth

2.4.3.1.

Intramembranous Ossification

2.4.3.2.

Endochondral Ossification

2.4.3.3.

Bone Growth in Length and Width

2.4.3.4.

Factors Affecting Bone Growth

2.4.4.

Joints and Articulations

2.4.4.1.

Classification of Joints

2.4.4.1.1.

Structural Classification

2.4.4.1.2.

Functional Classification

2.4.4.2.

Synovial Joints

2.4.4.2.1.

Types of Synovial Joints

2.4.4.2.2.

2.4.4.3.

Joint Disorders

2.4.5.

Bone Remodeling and Repair

2.4.5.1.

Bone Remodeling Process

2.4.5.2.

Hormonal Regulation

2.4.5.3.

Fracture Repair

2.4.5.4.

2.5.

The Muscular System

2.5.1.

Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

2.5.1.1.

Muscle Organization

2.5.1.2.

Muscle Fiber Structure

2.5.1.3.

Neuromuscular Junction

2.5.2.

Muscle Contraction Mechanisms

2.5.2.1.

Sliding Filament Theory

2.5.2.2.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

2.5.2.3.

Cross-Bridge Cycle

2.5.2.4.

Role of Calcium

2.5.3.

Muscle Metabolism

2.5.3.1.

2.5.3.1.1.

Phosphocreatine System

2.5.3.1.2.

Glycolytic System

2.5.3.1.3.

Oxidative System

2.5.3.2.

2.5.3.3.

Recovery from Exercise

2.5.4.

Types of Muscle Contractions

2.5.4.1.

Isometric Contractions

2.5.4.2.

Isotonic Contractions

2.5.4.3.

Eccentric vs Concentric

2.5.5.

Muscle Disorders

2.5.5.1.

Muscular Dystrophies

2.5.5.2.

Myasthenia Gravis

2.5.5.3.

Muscle Cramps and Spasms

2.6.

The Nervous System

2.6.1.

Organization of the Nervous System

2.6.1.1.

Central Nervous System

2.6.1.2.

Peripheral Nervous System

2.6.1.3.

Functional Divisions

2.6.2.

Central Nervous System

2.6.2.1.

2.6.2.1.1.

2.6.2.1.1.1.

Cerebral Cortex

2.6.2.1.1.2.

2.6.2.1.1.3.

2.6.2.1.2.

2.6.2.1.2.1.

2.6.2.1.2.2.

2.6.2.1.2.3.

2.6.2.1.3.

2.6.2.1.3.1.

2.6.2.1.3.2.

2.6.2.1.3.3.

Medulla Oblongata

2.6.2.1.4.

2.6.2.1.4.1.

Structure and Function

2.6.2.1.4.2.

2.6.2.2.

The Spinal Cord

2.6.2.2.1.

Spinal Cord Anatomy

2.6.2.2.2.

Gray and White Matter

2.6.2.2.3.

2.6.2.2.4.

2.6.2.2.4.1.

Monosynaptic Reflexes

2.6.2.2.4.2.

Polysynaptic Reflexes

2.6.2.3.

Protective Structures

2.6.2.3.1.

2.6.2.3.2.

Cerebrospinal Fluid

2.6.2.3.3.

Blood-Brain Barrier

2.6.3.

Peripheral Nervous System

2.6.3.1.

2.6.3.1.1.

Twelve Cranial Nerves

2.6.3.1.2.

Functions and Testing

2.6.3.2.

2.6.3.2.1.

Spinal Nerve Formation

2.6.3.2.2.

2.6.3.2.3.

Dermatomes and Myotomes

2.6.4.

Autonomic Nervous System

2.6.4.1.

Sympathetic Division

2.6.4.1.1.

Anatomy and Organization

2.6.4.1.2.

Neurotransmitters and Receptors

2.6.4.1.3.

Physiological Effects

2.6.4.2.

Parasympathetic Division

2.6.4.2.1.

Anatomy and Organization

2.6.4.2.2.

Neurotransmitters and Receptors

2.6.4.2.3.

Physiological Effects

2.6.4.3.

Enteric Nervous System

2.6.4.3.1.

Structure and Function

2.6.4.3.2.

Integration with CNS

2.6.5.

Neurophysiology

2.6.5.1.

Resting Membrane Potential

2.6.5.1.1.

Ion Distribution

2.6.5.1.2.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

2.6.5.2.

Action Potentials

2.6.5.2.1.

Threshold and All-or-None Principle

2.6.5.2.2.

Depolarization and Repolarization

2.6.5.2.3.

Propagation of Action Potentials

2.6.5.2.4.

Saltatory Conduction

2.6.5.3.

Synaptic Transmission

2.6.5.3.1.

Chemical Synapses

2.6.5.3.2.

Neurotransmitter Release

2.6.5.3.3.

Postsynaptic Potentials

2.6.5.3.4.

Synaptic Integration

2.7.

The Endocrine System

2.7.1.

Principles of Endocrine Function

2.7.1.1.

Hormones vs Neurotransmitters

2.7.1.2.

Hormone Transport

2.7.1.3.

Hormone Clearance

2.7.2.

Types of Hormones

2.7.2.1.

Peptide and Protein Hormones

2.7.2.2.

Steroid Hormones

2.7.2.3.

2.7.3.

Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms

2.7.3.1.

Cell Surface Receptors

2.7.3.2.

Intracellular Receptors

2.7.3.3.

Second Messenger Systems

2.7.4.

Major Endocrine Glands

2.7.4.1.

Pituitary Gland

2.7.4.1.1.

Anterior Pituitary

2.7.4.1.1.1.

2.7.4.1.1.2.

2.7.4.1.1.3.

2.7.4.1.1.4.

2.7.4.1.1.5.

2.7.4.1.2.

Posterior Pituitary

2.7.4.1.2.1.

2.7.4.1.2.2.

2.7.4.2.

2.7.4.2.1.

Thyroid Hormones

2.7.4.2.2.

2.7.4.2.3.

Thyroid Disorders

2.7.4.3.

Parathyroid Glands

2.7.4.3.1.

Parathyroid Hormone

2.7.4.3.2.

Calcium Homeostasis

2.7.4.4.

2.7.4.4.1.

2.7.4.4.1.1.

Mineralocorticoids

2.7.4.4.1.2.

Glucocorticoids

2.7.4.4.1.3.

2.7.4.4.2.

Adrenal Medulla

2.7.4.4.2.1.

2.7.4.4.2.2.

2.7.4.5.

2.7.4.5.1.

2.7.4.5.2.

2.7.4.5.3.

2.7.4.5.4.

Diabetes Mellitus

2.7.4.6.

2.7.4.6.1.

Ovarian Hormones

2.7.4.6.2.

Testicular Hormones

2.7.5.

Regulation of Hormone Secretion

2.7.5.1.

Negative Feedback

2.7.5.2.

Positive Feedback

2.7.5.3.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

2.7.6.

Endocrine Disorders

2.7.6.1.

Hyposecretion Disorders

2.7.6.2.

Hypersecretion Disorders

2.7.6.3.

Hormone Resistance Syndromes

2.8.

The Cardiovascular System

2.8.1.

2.8.1.1.

2.8.1.1.1.

2.8.1.1.2.

2.8.1.2.

2.8.1.2.1.

Atrioventricular Valves

2.8.1.2.2.

Semilunar Valves

2.8.1.3.

Heart Wall Layers

2.8.1.3.1.

2.8.1.3.2.

2.8.1.3.3.

2.8.1.4.

Coronary Circulation

2.8.1.4.1.

Coronary Arteries

2.8.1.4.2.

2.8.2.

Cardiac Physiology

2.8.2.1.

Electrical Conduction System

2.8.2.1.1.

Sinoatrial Node

2.8.2.1.2.

Atrioventricular Node

2.8.2.1.3.

2.8.2.1.4.

Purkinje Fibers

2.8.2.2.

2.8.2.2.1.

2.8.2.2.2.

2.8.2.2.3.

2.8.2.3.

Electrocardiogram

2.8.2.3.1.

2.8.2.3.2.

ECG Interpretation

2.8.2.4.

2.8.2.4.1.

2.8.2.4.2.

2.8.2.4.3.

Factors Affecting Cardiac Output

2.8.3.

2.8.3.1.

Arterial System

2.8.3.1.1.

Elastic Arteries

2.8.3.1.2.

Muscular Arteries

2.8.3.1.3.

2.8.3.2.

2.8.3.2.1.

2.8.3.2.2.

2.8.3.2.3.

2.8.3.3.

2.8.3.3.1.

Capillary Structure

2.8.3.3.2.

Capillary Exchange

2.8.4.

Circulation Pathways

2.8.4.1.

Systemic Circulation

2.8.4.2.

Pulmonary Circulation

2.8.4.3.

Portal Circulations

2.8.5.

Blood Pressure and Flow

2.8.5.1.

Blood Pressure Measurement

2.8.5.2.

Factors Affecting Blood Pressure

2.8.5.3.

Regulation of Blood Pressure

2.8.5.3.1.

Neural Regulation

2.8.5.3.2.

Hormonal Regulation

2.8.5.3.3.

Local Regulation

2.8.5.4.

2.8.5.5.

2.9.

Blood and Hemostasis

2.9.1.

Blood Composition

2.9.1.1.

2.9.1.1.1.

Plasma Proteins

2.9.1.1.2.

2.9.1.1.3.

Nutrients and Wastes

2.9.1.2.

Formed Elements

2.9.1.2.1.

Red Blood Cells

2.9.1.2.1.1.

Structure and Function

2.9.1.2.1.2.

2.9.1.2.1.3.

Oxygen Transport

2.9.1.2.2.

White Blood Cells

2.9.1.2.2.1.

2.9.1.2.2.2.

2.9.1.2.2.3.

Immune Functions

2.9.1.2.3.

2.9.1.2.3.1.

Structure and Function

2.9.1.2.3.2.

Role in Hemostasis

2.9.2.

2.9.2.1.

2.9.2.2.

2.9.2.3.

2.9.2.4.

2.9.3.

2.9.3.1.

2.9.3.2.

Platelet Plug Formation

2.9.3.3.

Coagulation Cascade

2.9.3.3.1.

Intrinsic Pathway

2.9.3.3.2.

Extrinsic Pathway

2.9.3.3.3.

2.9.3.4.

2.9.3.5.

Anticoagulation Mechanisms

2.9.4.

Blood Disorders

2.9.4.1.

2.9.4.2.

2.9.4.3.

2.9.4.4.

Bleeding Disorders

2.10.

The Lymphatic System and Immunity

2.10.1.

Lymphatic System Structure

2.10.1.1.

Lymphatic Vessels

2.10.1.1.1.

Lymphatic Capillaries

2.10.1.1.2.

Lymphatic Collecting Vessels

2.10.1.1.3.

Lymphatic Trunks and Ducts

2.10.1.2.

Lymph Formation and Flow

2.10.1.3.

Functions of Lymphatic System

2.10.2.

Lymphoid Organs and Tissues

2.10.2.1.

Primary Lymphoid Organs

2.10.2.1.1.

2.10.2.1.2.

2.10.2.2.

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

2.10.2.2.1.

2.10.2.2.2.

2.10.2.2.3.

2.10.2.2.4.

Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue

2.10.3.

Overview of Immune Function

2.10.3.1.

Innate Immunity

2.10.3.2.

Adaptive Immunity

2.10.3.3.

Immune System Cells

2.11.

The Respiratory System

2.11.1.

Respiratory System Anatomy

2.11.1.1.

Upper Respiratory Tract

2.11.1.1.1.

Nose and Nasal Cavity

2.11.1.1.2.

2.11.1.1.3.

2.11.1.2.

Lower Respiratory Tract

2.11.1.2.1.

2.11.1.2.2.

Bronchi and Bronchioles

2.11.1.2.3.

2.11.1.3.

Respiratory Membrane

2.11.2.

Mechanics of Breathing

2.11.2.1.

Pulmonary Ventilation

2.11.2.1.1.

2.11.2.1.2.

2.11.2.1.3.

Respiratory Muscles

2.11.2.2.

Lung Volumes and Capacities

2.11.2.2.1.

2.11.2.2.2.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

2.11.2.2.3.

Expiratory Reserve Volume

2.11.2.2.4.

Residual Volume

2.11.2.3.

2.11.3.

Gas Exchange and Transport

2.11.3.1.

Alveolar Gas Exchange

2.11.3.1.1.

Diffusion of Gases

2.11.3.1.2.

Factors Affecting Gas Exchange

2.11.3.2.

Gas Transport in Blood

2.11.3.2.1.

Oxygen Transport

2.11.3.2.1.1.

Hemoglobin Binding

2.11.3.2.1.2.

Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve

2.11.3.2.2.

Carbon Dioxide Transport

2.11.3.2.2.1.

2.11.3.2.2.2.

Bicarbonate System

2.11.3.2.2.3.

Carbaminohemoglobin

2.11.4.

Regulation of Respiration

2.11.4.1.

Respiratory Control Centers

2.11.4.2.

Chemical Control

2.11.4.2.1.

CO2 and pH Sensors

2.11.4.2.2.

2.11.4.3.

2.11.4.4.

Voluntary Control

2.11.5.

Respiratory Disorders

2.11.5.1.

Obstructive Diseases

2.11.5.2.

Restrictive Diseases

2.11.5.3.

Gas Exchange Disorders

2.12.

The Digestive System

2.12.1.

Digestive System Organization

2.12.1.1.

Alimentary Canal

2.12.1.2.

Accessory Organs

2.12.1.3.

Digestive Processes

2.12.2.

Anatomy of the GI Tract

2.12.2.1.

2.12.2.1.1.

Teeth and Mastication

2.12.2.1.2.

Tongue and Taste

2.12.2.1.3.

Salivary Glands

2.12.2.2.

2.12.2.2.1.

Structure and Function

2.12.2.2.2.

Swallowing Mechanism

2.12.2.3.

2.12.2.3.1.

Stomach Anatomy

2.12.2.3.2.

Gastric Secretions

2.12.2.3.3.

Gastric Motility

2.12.2.4.

Small Intestine

2.12.2.4.1.

2.12.2.4.2.

2.12.2.4.3.

2.12.2.4.4.

Intestinal Secretions

2.12.2.4.5.

Intestinal Motility

2.12.2.5.

Large Intestine

2.12.2.5.1.

Cecum and Appendix

2.12.2.5.2.

2.12.2.5.3.

Rectum and Anal Canal

2.12.2.5.4.

Colonic Functions

2.12.3.

Accessory Organs

2.12.3.1.

2.12.3.1.1.

2.12.3.1.2.

Hepatic Functions

2.12.3.1.3.

Bile Production

2.12.3.2.

2.12.3.2.1.

Pancreatic Anatomy

2.12.3.2.2.

Exocrine Functions

2.12.3.2.3.

Pancreatic Enzymes

2.12.3.3.

2.12.3.3.1.

Bile Storage and Concentration

2.12.3.3.2.

Gallbladder Contraction

2.12.4.

Digestion and Absorption

2.12.4.1.

Carbohydrate Digestion

2.12.4.1.1.

Starch Digestion

2.12.4.1.2.

Sugar Absorption

2.12.4.2.

Protein Digestion

2.12.4.2.1.

Protein Breakdown

2.12.4.2.2.

Amino Acid Absorption

2.12.4.3.

Lipid Digestion

2.12.4.3.1.

Fat Emulsification

2.12.4.3.2.

Fatty Acid Absorption

2.12.4.4.

Vitamin and Mineral Absorption

2.12.4.4.1.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

2.12.4.4.2.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

2.12.4.4.3.

Mineral Absorption

2.12.5.

Digestive System Regulation

2.12.5.1.

2.12.5.2.

Hormonal Control

2.12.5.3.

2.12.6.

Digestive Disorders

2.12.6.1.

2.12.6.2.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease

2.12.6.3.

Malabsorption Syndromes

2.13.

The Urinary System

2.13.1.

2.13.1.1.

Kidney Structure

2.13.1.1.1.

2.13.1.1.2.

2.13.1.1.3.

2.13.1.2.

Nephron Structure

2.13.1.2.1.

Renal Corpuscle

2.13.1.2.2.

2.13.1.2.3.

Collecting Duct

2.13.1.3.

Blood Supply to Kidneys

2.13.2.

Urine Formation

2.13.2.1.

Glomerular Filtration

2.13.2.1.1.

Filtration Membrane

2.13.2.1.2.

Glomerular Filtration Rate

2.13.2.1.3.

Regulation of GFR

2.13.2.2.

Tubular Reabsorption

2.13.2.2.1.

Proximal Tubule Reabsorption

2.13.2.2.2.

Loop of Henle Function

2.13.2.2.3.

Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct

2.13.2.3.

Tubular Secretion

2.13.2.3.1.

Secreted Substances

2.13.2.3.2.

Secretion Mechanisms

2.13.3.

Urine Concentration and Dilution

2.13.3.1.

Countercurrent Mechanism

2.13.3.2.

2.13.3.3.

Osmolarity Regulation

2.13.4.

Regulation of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance

2.13.4.1.

2.13.4.1.1.

Aldosterone Regulation

2.13.4.1.2.

2.13.4.2.

Potassium Balance

2.13.4.2.1.

Potassium Secretion

2.13.4.2.2.

Regulation Mechanisms

2.13.4.3.

Calcium and Phosphate Balance

2.13.4.3.1.

2.13.4.3.2.

Calcitriol Function

2.13.5.

Acid-Base Balance

2.13.5.1.

2.13.5.2.

Respiratory Compensation

2.13.5.3.

Renal Compensation

2.13.5.4.

Acid-Base Disorders

2.13.6.

Lower Urinary Tract

2.13.6.1.

2.13.6.2.

Urinary Bladder

2.13.6.3.

2.13.6.4.

Micturition Reflex

2.13.7.

Renal Disorders

2.13.7.1.

Acute Kidney Injury

2.13.7.2.

Chronic Kidney Disease

2.13.7.3.

Glomerular Diseases

2.13.7.4.

Tubular Disorders

2.14.

The Reproductive System

2.14.1.

Male Reproductive System

2.14.1.1.

Male Reproductive Anatomy

2.14.1.1.1.

2.14.1.1.2.

2.14.1.1.3.

2.14.1.1.4.

Accessory Glands

2.14.1.1.5.

2.14.1.2.

Spermatogenesis

2.14.1.2.1.

Stages of Spermatogenesis

2.14.1.2.2.

Sertoli Cell Function

2.14.1.2.3.

Hormonal Control

2.14.1.3.

Male Reproductive Hormones

2.14.1.3.1.

2.14.1.3.2.

2.14.1.3.3.

2.14.2.

Female Reproductive System

2.14.2.1.

Female Reproductive Anatomy

2.14.2.1.1.

2.14.2.1.2.

Fallopian Tubes

2.14.2.1.3.

2.14.2.1.4.

2.14.2.1.5.

External Genitalia

2.14.2.2.

2.14.2.2.1.

Stages of Oogenesis

2.14.2.2.2.

Follicle Development

2.14.2.2.3.

2.14.2.3.

Menstrual Cycle

2.14.2.3.1.

2.14.2.3.2.

2.14.2.3.3.

Hormonal Regulation

2.14.3.

Fertilization and Early Development

2.14.3.1.

Fertilization Process

2.14.3.2.

2.14.3.3.

Early Embryonic Development

2.14.3.4.

Placental Development and Function

2.14.4.

Pregnancy and Parturition

2.14.4.1.

Hormonal Changes in Pregnancy

2.14.4.2.

Fetal Development

2.14.4.3.

Labor and Delivery

2.14.4.4.

2.14.5.

Reproductive Disorders

2.14.5.1.

Male Infertility

2.14.5.2.

Female Infertility

2.14.5.3.

Sexually Transmitted Infections

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