Natural Hazards

  1. Earth's Internal Processes and Geological Hazards
    1. Plate Tectonics as a Driving Force
      1. Earth's Internal Structure
        1. Crust
          1. Continental Crust
            1. Oceanic Crust
              1. Crustal Composition and Properties
              2. Mantle
                1. Upper Mantle
                  1. Lower Mantle
                    1. Mantle Convection
                      1. Asthenosphere and Lithosphere
                      2. Core
                        1. Outer Core
                          1. Inner Core
                            1. Core Composition and Properties
                              1. Magnetic Field Generation
                            2. Plate Boundaries
                              1. Divergent Boundaries
                                1. Mid-Ocean Ridges
                                  1. Continental Rifts
                                    1. Seafloor Spreading Processes
                                      1. Associated Volcanic Activity
                                      2. Convergent Boundaries
                                        1. Ocean-Ocean Convergence
                                          1. Ocean-Continent Convergence
                                            1. Continent-Continent Convergence
                                              1. Subduction Zones
                                                1. Volcanic Arcs
                                                  1. Mountain Building
                                                  2. Transform Boundaries
                                                    1. Strike-Slip Faults
                                                      1. Offset Features
                                                        1. Transform Fault Systems
                                                      2. The Tectonic Cycle
                                                        1. Plate Movement Mechanisms
                                                          1. Driving Forces
                                                            1. Seafloor Spreading
                                                              1. Subduction and Recycling
                                                                1. Continental Drift Evidence
                                                                  1. Paleomagnetism
                                                                2. Earthquakes
                                                                  1. Earthquake Fundamentals
                                                                    1. Elastic Rebound Theory
                                                                      1. Stress and Strain in Earth's Crust
                                                                        1. Energy Accumulation and Release
                                                                          1. Earthquake Cycle
                                                                          2. Faults and Faulting
                                                                            1. Fault Classification
                                                                              1. Normal Faults
                                                                                1. Reverse Faults
                                                                                  1. Thrust Faults
                                                                                    1. Strike-Slip Faults
                                                                                      1. Oblique-Slip Faults
                                                                                      2. Fault Systems and Networks
                                                                                        1. Active vs. Inactive Faults
                                                                                          1. Fault Scarps and Surface Expression
                                                                                          2. Seismic Waves
                                                                                            1. Body Waves
                                                                                              1. P-waves
                                                                                                1. S-waves
                                                                                                  1. Wave Properties and Behavior
                                                                                                  2. Surface Waves
                                                                                                    1. Love Waves
                                                                                                      1. Rayleigh Waves
                                                                                                        1. Wave Propagation and Attenuation
                                                                                                        2. Wave Interactions and Reflections
                                                                                                        3. Measuring Earthquakes
                                                                                                          1. Magnitude Scales
                                                                                                            1. Richter Scale
                                                                                                              1. Moment Magnitude Scale
                                                                                                                1. Body Wave Magnitude
                                                                                                                  1. Surface Wave Magnitude
                                                                                                                  2. Intensity Scales
                                                                                                                    1. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
                                                                                                                      1. European Macroseismic Scale
                                                                                                                      2. Seismograph Networks
                                                                                                                        1. Strong Motion Recording
                                                                                                                        2. Geographic Distribution
                                                                                                                          1. Plate Boundary Earthquakes
                                                                                                                            1. The Pacific Ring of Fire
                                                                                                                              1. Intraplate Earthquakes
                                                                                                                                1. Seismic Zones and Belts
                                                                                                                                  1. Regional Seismicity Patterns
                                                                                                                                  2. Earthquake Effects and Hazards
                                                                                                                                    1. Primary Effects
                                                                                                                                      1. Ground Shaking
                                                                                                                                        1. Surface Rupture
                                                                                                                                          1. Fault Displacement
                                                                                                                                          2. Secondary Effects
                                                                                                                                            1. Liquefaction
                                                                                                                                              1. Lateral Spreading
                                                                                                                                                1. Landslides and Slope Failures
                                                                                                                                                  1. Ground Settlement
                                                                                                                                                  2. Tertiary Effects
                                                                                                                                                    1. Fires Following Earthquakes
                                                                                                                                                      1. Dam Failures
                                                                                                                                                        1. Infrastructure Collapse
                                                                                                                                                          1. Tsunamis
                                                                                                                                                            1. Economic and Social Disruption
                                                                                                                                                          2. Earthquake Hazard Assessment
                                                                                                                                                            1. Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis
                                                                                                                                                              1. Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                1. Ground Motion Prediction Equations
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Seismic Hazard Maps
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Earthquake Precursors
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Seismic Gaps Theory
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Statistical Forecasting Models
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Early Warning Systems
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Limitations of Prediction
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Volcanic Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Magma Formation and Properties
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Magma Generation Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Magma Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Felsic Magmas
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Intermediate Magmas
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mafic Magmas
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Ultramafic Magmas
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Viscosity Controls
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Volatile Content and Behavior
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Magma Chamber Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Types of Volcanoes
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Shield Volcanoes
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Formation and Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Examples and Distribution
                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Composite Volcanoes
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Stratovolcano Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Eruption Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Cinder Cones
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Formation Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Monogenetic vs. Polygenetic
                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Calderas
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Caldera Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Resurgent Calderas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Nested Calderas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Volcanic Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Submarine Volcanoes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Eruption Styles and Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Effusive Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lava Flow Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Flow Dynamics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Explosive Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Vulcanian Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Strombolian Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Plinian Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ultra-Plinian Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Phreatomagmatic Eruptions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Volcanic Explosivity Index
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Volcanic Hazards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Lava Flows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Flow Types and Behavior
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Hazard Assessment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Mitigation Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Pyroclastic Activity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Ash Fall
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Ash Dispersal Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Health and Infrastructure Impacts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Pyroclastic Flows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Formation and Dynamics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hazard Zones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Pyroclastic Surges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Ballistic Projectiles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Lahars
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Formation Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Flow Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Hazard Mapping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Volcanic Gases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Gas Composition and Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Sulfur Dioxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Carbon Dioxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hydrogen Sulfide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Fluorine Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Health and Environmental Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Volcanic Landslides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Debris Avalanches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Sector Collapse
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Triggering Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Secondary Hazards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Climate Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Acid Rain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Crop Failure and Famine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Aviation Hazards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Volcanic Monitoring and Forecasting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Seismic Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Long-Period Events
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Tremor Signals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Ground Deformation Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. GPS Networks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. InSAR Technology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Tiltmeters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Gas Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Emission Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Composition Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Remote Sensing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Thermal Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Volcanic Alert Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        3. Tsunamis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Generation Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Earthquake-Generated Tsunamis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Fault Rupture Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Seafloor Displacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Source Parameters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Submarine Landslides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Landslide Tsunamis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Triggering Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Volcanic Tsunamis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pyroclastic Flows into Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Volcanic Explosions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Caldera Collapse
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Meteorite Impact Tsunamis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Other Generation Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Tsunami Physics and Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Wave Generation and Propagation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Deep Water Wave Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Shallow Water Transformations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Shoaling Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Refraction and Diffraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Resonance in Harbors and Bays
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Tsunami Behavior at Coastlines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Wave Runup and Inundation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Drawdown Phenomena
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Bore Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Sediment Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Coastal Erosion and Deposition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Detection and Warning Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Seismic Detection Networks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Deep Ocean Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. DART Buoy Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Bottom Pressure Recorders
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Coastal Sea Level Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Tide Gauge Networks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Warning System Architecture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. International Cooperation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Tsunami Risk Assessment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hazard Mapping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Inundation Modeling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Evacuation Zone Planning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Vulnerability Assessment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Tsunami Preparedness and Mitigation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Early Warning Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Public Education Programs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Evacuation Planning and Routes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Coastal Engineering Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Land Use Planning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Building Codes and Standards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Mass Wasting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Fundamental Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Gravitational Forces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Slope Stability Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Factor of Safety
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Driving vs. Resisting Forces
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Role of Water in Slope Stability
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Pore Water Pressure Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Classification of Mass Wasting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Falls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Rockfalls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Debris Falls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Toppling Failures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Slides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Rotational Slides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Translational Slides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Block Slides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Wedge Failures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Flows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Debris Flows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Mudflows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Earth Flows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Creep
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Solifluction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Complex Movements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Avalanches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Snow Avalanches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Debris Avalanches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Rock Avalanches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Triggering Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Precipitation and Groundwater
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Earthquake Shaking
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Volcanic Activity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Human Activities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Excavation and Undercutting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Loading and Construction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Deforestation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Mining Activities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Freeze-Thaw Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Weathering Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Predisposing Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Geology and Rock Type
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Soil Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Slope Geometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Vegetation Cover
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Climate Conditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Previous Landslide History
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Landslide Hazard Assessment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Susceptibility Mapping
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hazard Zonation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Risk Assessment Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Monitoring Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Ground-Based Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Remote Sensing Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Early Warning Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Landslide Mitigation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Slope Stabilization Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Drainage Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Retaining Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Vegetation Management
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Land Use Planning
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Building Restrictions

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Previous

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Foundational Concepts

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Go to top

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Next

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Atmospheric, Hydrological, and Climatological Hazards