Natural Hazards

2.

Earth's Internal Processes and Geological Hazards

2.1.

Plate Tectonics as a Driving Force

2.1.1.

Earth's Internal Structure

2.1.1.1.

2.1.1.1.1.

Continental Crust

2.1.1.1.2.

2.1.1.1.3.

Crustal Composition and Properties

2.1.1.2.

2.1.1.2.1.

2.1.1.2.2.

2.1.1.2.3.

Mantle Convection

2.1.1.2.4.

Asthenosphere and Lithosphere

2.1.1.3.

2.1.1.3.1.

2.1.1.3.2.

2.1.1.3.3.

Core Composition and Properties

2.1.1.3.4.

Magnetic Field Generation

2.1.2.

Plate Boundaries

2.1.2.1.

Divergent Boundaries

2.1.2.1.1.

Mid-Ocean Ridges

2.1.2.1.2.

Continental Rifts

2.1.2.1.3.

Seafloor Spreading Processes

2.1.2.1.4.

Associated Volcanic Activity

2.1.2.2.

Convergent Boundaries

2.1.2.2.1.

Ocean-Ocean Convergence

2.1.2.2.2.

Ocean-Continent Convergence

2.1.2.2.3.

Continent-Continent Convergence

2.1.2.2.4.

Subduction Zones

2.1.2.2.5.

2.1.2.2.6.

Mountain Building

2.1.2.3.

Transform Boundaries

2.1.2.3.1.

Strike-Slip Faults

2.1.2.3.2.

Offset Features

2.1.2.3.3.

Transform Fault Systems

2.1.3.

The Tectonic Cycle

2.1.3.1.

Plate Movement Mechanisms

2.1.3.2.

2.1.3.3.

Seafloor Spreading

2.1.3.4.

Subduction and Recycling

2.1.3.5.

Continental Drift Evidence

2.1.3.6.

2.2.

2.2.1.

Earthquake Fundamentals

2.2.1.1.

Elastic Rebound Theory

2.2.1.2.

Stress and Strain in Earth's Crust

2.2.1.3.

Energy Accumulation and Release

2.2.1.4.

Earthquake Cycle

2.2.2.

Faults and Faulting

2.2.2.1.

Fault Classification

2.2.2.1.1.

2.2.2.1.2.

2.2.2.1.3.

2.2.2.1.4.

Strike-Slip Faults

2.2.2.1.5.

Oblique-Slip Faults

2.2.2.2.

Fault Systems and Networks

2.2.2.3.

Active vs. Inactive Faults

2.2.2.4.

Fault Scarps and Surface Expression

2.2.3.

2.2.3.1.

2.2.3.1.1.

2.2.3.1.2.

2.2.3.1.3.

Wave Properties and Behavior

2.2.3.2.

2.2.3.2.1.

2.2.3.2.2.

2.2.3.2.3.

Wave Propagation and Attenuation

2.2.3.3.

Wave Interactions and Reflections

2.2.4.

Measuring Earthquakes

2.2.4.1.

Magnitude Scales

2.2.4.1.1.

2.2.4.1.2.

Moment Magnitude Scale

2.2.4.1.3.

Body Wave Magnitude

2.2.4.1.4.

Surface Wave Magnitude

2.2.4.2.

Intensity Scales

2.2.4.2.1.

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

2.2.4.2.2.

European Macroseismic Scale

2.2.4.3.

Seismograph Networks

2.2.4.4.

Strong Motion Recording

2.2.5.

Geographic Distribution

2.2.5.1.

Plate Boundary Earthquakes

2.2.5.2.

The Pacific Ring of Fire

2.2.5.3.

Intraplate Earthquakes

2.2.5.4.

Seismic Zones and Belts

2.2.5.5.

Regional Seismicity Patterns

2.2.6.

Earthquake Effects and Hazards

2.2.6.1.

Primary Effects

2.2.6.1.1.

2.2.6.1.2.

Surface Rupture

2.2.6.1.3.

Fault Displacement

2.2.6.2.

Secondary Effects

2.2.6.2.1.

2.2.6.2.2.

Lateral Spreading

2.2.6.2.3.

Landslides and Slope Failures

2.2.6.2.4.

Ground Settlement

2.2.6.3.

Tertiary Effects

2.2.6.3.1.

Fires Following Earthquakes

2.2.6.3.2.

2.2.6.3.3.

Infrastructure Collapse

2.2.6.3.4.

2.2.6.3.5.

Economic and Social Disruption

2.2.7.

Earthquake Hazard Assessment

2.2.7.1.

Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Analysis

2.2.7.2.

Deterministic Seismic Hazard Analysis

2.2.7.3.

Ground Motion Prediction Equations

2.2.7.4.

Seismic Hazard Maps

2.2.8.

Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting

2.2.8.1.

Earthquake Precursors

2.2.8.2.

Seismic Gaps Theory

2.2.8.3.

Statistical Forecasting Models

2.2.8.4.

Early Warning Systems

2.2.8.5.

Limitations of Prediction

2.3.

Volcanic Eruptions

2.3.1.

Magma Formation and Properties

2.3.1.1.

Magma Generation Processes

2.3.1.2.

Magma Composition

2.3.1.2.1.

2.3.1.2.2.

Intermediate Magmas

2.3.1.2.3.

2.3.1.2.4.

Ultramafic Magmas

2.3.1.3.

Viscosity Controls

2.3.1.4.

Volatile Content and Behavior

2.3.1.5.

Magma Chamber Processes

2.3.2.

Types of Volcanoes

2.3.2.1.

Shield Volcanoes

2.3.2.1.1.

Formation and Characteristics

2.3.2.1.2.

Examples and Distribution

2.3.2.2.

Composite Volcanoes

2.3.2.2.1.

Stratovolcano Structure

2.3.2.2.2.

Eruption Patterns

2.3.2.3.

2.3.2.3.1.

Formation Mechanisms

2.3.2.3.2.

Monogenetic vs. Polygenetic

2.3.2.4.

2.3.2.4.1.

Caldera Formation

2.3.2.4.2.

Resurgent Calderas

2.3.2.4.3.

Nested Calderas

2.3.2.5.

Volcanic Fields

2.3.2.6.

Submarine Volcanoes

2.3.3.

Eruption Styles and Processes

2.3.3.1.

Effusive Eruptions

2.3.3.1.1.

Lava Flow Types

2.3.3.1.2.

2.3.3.2.

Explosive Eruptions

2.3.3.2.1.

Vulcanian Eruptions

2.3.3.2.2.

Strombolian Eruptions

2.3.3.2.3.

Plinian Eruptions

2.3.3.2.4.

Ultra-Plinian Eruptions

2.3.3.3.

Phreatomagmatic Eruptions

2.3.3.4.

Volcanic Explosivity Index

2.3.4.

Volcanic Hazards

2.3.4.1.

2.3.4.1.1.

Flow Types and Behavior

2.3.4.1.2.

Hazard Assessment

2.3.4.1.3.

Mitigation Strategies

2.3.4.2.

Pyroclastic Activity

2.3.4.2.1.

2.3.4.2.1.1.

Ash Dispersal Patterns

2.3.4.2.1.2.

Health and Infrastructure Impacts

2.3.4.2.2.

Pyroclastic Flows

2.3.4.2.2.1.

Formation and Dynamics

2.3.4.2.2.2.

2.3.4.2.3.

Pyroclastic Surges

2.3.4.2.4.

Ballistic Projectiles

2.3.4.3.

2.3.4.3.1.

Formation Mechanisms

2.3.4.3.2.

Flow Characteristics

2.3.4.3.3.

2.3.4.4.

2.3.4.4.1.

Gas Composition and Sources

2.3.4.4.2.

2.3.4.4.3.

2.3.4.4.4.

Hydrogen Sulfide

2.3.4.4.5.

Fluorine Compounds

2.3.4.4.6.

Health and Environmental Effects

2.3.4.5.

Volcanic Landslides

2.3.4.5.1.

Debris Avalanches

2.3.4.5.2.

Sector Collapse

2.3.4.5.3.

Triggering Mechanisms

2.3.4.6.

Secondary Hazards

2.3.4.6.1.

Climate Effects

2.3.4.6.2.

2.3.4.6.3.

Crop Failure and Famine

2.3.4.6.4.

Aviation Hazards

2.3.5.

Volcanic Monitoring and Forecasting

2.3.5.1.

Seismic Monitoring

2.3.5.1.1.

Volcano-Tectonic Earthquakes

2.3.5.1.2.

Long-Period Events

2.3.5.1.3.

2.3.5.2.

Ground Deformation Monitoring

2.3.5.2.1.

2.3.5.2.2.

InSAR Technology

2.3.5.2.3.

2.3.5.3.

2.3.5.3.1.

2.3.5.3.2.

Composition Changes

2.3.5.3.3.

2.3.5.4.

Thermal Monitoring

2.3.5.5.

Volcanic Alert Levels

2.4.

2.4.1.

Generation Mechanisms

2.4.1.1.

Earthquake-Generated Tsunamis

2.4.1.1.1.

Fault Rupture Characteristics

2.4.1.1.2.

Seafloor Displacement

2.4.1.1.3.

Source Parameters

2.4.1.2.

Submarine Landslides

2.4.1.2.1.

Landslide Tsunamis

2.4.1.2.2.

Triggering Factors

2.4.1.3.

Volcanic Tsunamis

2.4.1.3.1.

Pyroclastic Flows into Water

2.4.1.3.2.

Volcanic Explosions

2.4.1.3.3.

Caldera Collapse

2.4.1.4.

Meteorite Impact Tsunamis

2.4.1.5.

Other Generation Mechanisms

2.4.2.

Tsunami Physics and Characteristics

2.4.2.1.

Wave Generation and Propagation

2.4.2.2.

Deep Water Wave Properties

2.4.2.3.

Shallow Water Transformations

2.4.2.4.

Shoaling Effects

2.4.2.5.

Refraction and Diffraction

2.4.2.6.

Resonance in Harbors and Bays

2.4.3.

Tsunami Behavior at Coastlines

2.4.3.1.

Wave Runup and Inundation

2.4.3.2.

Drawdown Phenomena

2.4.3.3.

2.4.3.4.

Sediment Transport

2.4.3.5.

Coastal Erosion and Deposition

2.4.4.

Detection and Warning Systems

2.4.4.1.

Seismic Detection Networks

2.4.4.2.

Deep Ocean Detection

2.4.4.2.1.

DART Buoy Systems

2.4.4.2.2.

Bottom Pressure Recorders

2.4.4.3.

Coastal Sea Level Monitoring

2.4.4.4.

Tide Gauge Networks

2.4.4.5.

Warning System Architecture

2.4.4.6.

International Cooperation

2.4.5.

Tsunami Risk Assessment

2.4.5.1.

2.4.5.2.

Inundation Modeling

2.4.5.3.

Evacuation Zone Planning

2.4.5.4.

Vulnerability Assessment

2.4.6.

Tsunami Preparedness and Mitigation

2.4.6.1.

Early Warning Systems

2.4.6.2.

Public Education Programs

2.4.6.3.

Evacuation Planning and Routes

2.4.6.4.

Coastal Engineering Solutions

2.4.6.5.

Land Use Planning

2.4.6.6.

Building Codes and Standards

2.5.

2.5.1.

Fundamental Principles

2.5.1.1.

Gravitational Forces

2.5.1.2.

Slope Stability Analysis

2.5.1.3.

Factor of Safety

2.5.1.4.

Driving vs. Resisting Forces

2.5.1.5.

Role of Water in Slope Stability

2.5.1.6.

Pore Water Pressure Effects

2.5.2.

Classification of Mass Wasting

2.5.2.1.

2.5.2.1.1.

2.5.2.1.2.

2.5.2.1.3.

Toppling Failures

2.5.2.2.

2.5.2.2.1.

Rotational Slides

2.5.2.2.2.

Translational Slides

2.5.2.2.3.

2.5.2.2.4.

2.5.2.3.

2.5.2.3.1.

2.5.2.3.2.

2.5.2.3.3.

2.5.2.3.4.

2.5.2.3.5.

2.5.2.4.

Complex Movements

2.5.2.5.

2.5.2.5.1.

Snow Avalanches

2.5.2.5.2.

Debris Avalanches

2.5.2.5.3.

Rock Avalanches

2.5.3.

Triggering Factors

2.5.3.1.

Precipitation and Groundwater

2.5.3.2.

Earthquake Shaking

2.5.3.3.

Volcanic Activity

2.5.3.4.

Human Activities

2.5.3.4.1.

Excavation and Undercutting

2.5.3.4.2.

Loading and Construction

2.5.3.4.3.

2.5.3.4.4.

Mining Activities

2.5.3.5.

Freeze-Thaw Cycles

2.5.3.6.

Weathering Processes

2.5.4.

Predisposing Factors

2.5.4.1.

Geology and Rock Type

2.5.4.2.

Soil Properties

2.5.4.3.

2.5.4.4.

Vegetation Cover

2.5.4.5.

Climate Conditions

2.5.4.6.

Previous Landslide History

2.5.5.

Landslide Hazard Assessment

2.5.5.1.

Susceptibility Mapping

2.5.5.2.

Hazard Zonation

2.5.5.3.

Risk Assessment Methods

2.5.5.4.

Monitoring Techniques

2.5.5.4.1.

Ground-Based Monitoring

2.5.5.4.2.

Remote Sensing Applications

2.5.5.4.3.

Early Warning Systems

2.5.6.

Landslide Mitigation

2.5.6.1.

Slope Stabilization Techniques

2.5.6.2.

Drainage Control

2.5.6.3.

Retaining Structures

2.5.6.4.

Vegetation Management

2.5.6.5.

Land Use Planning

2.5.6.6.

Building Restrictions

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3. Atmospheric, Hydrological, and Climatological Hazards