Biomedical Imaging and Instrumentation

2.

Biomedical Instrumentation

2.1.

Principles of Measurement

2.1.1.

Sensors and Transducers

2.1.1.1.

Classification of Sensors

2.1.1.1.1.

Mechanical Sensors

2.1.1.1.1.1.

Pressure Sensors

2.1.1.1.1.2.

2.1.1.1.1.3.

Displacement Sensors

2.1.1.1.2.

Thermal Sensors

2.1.1.1.2.1.

2.1.1.1.2.2.

2.1.1.1.2.3.

2.1.1.1.3.

Electrical Sensors

2.1.1.1.3.1.

Voltage Sensors

2.1.1.1.3.2.

Current Sensors

2.1.1.1.3.3.

Impedance Sensors

2.1.1.1.4.

Chemical Sensors

2.1.1.1.4.1.

2.1.1.1.4.2.

Ion-Selective Electrodes

2.1.1.1.4.3.

2.1.1.1.5.

Optical Sensors

2.1.1.1.5.1.

2.1.1.1.5.2.

Photomultiplier Tubes

2.1.1.1.5.3.

2.1.1.2.

Performance Characteristics

2.1.1.2.1.

2.1.1.2.2.

2.1.1.2.3.

2.1.1.2.4.

2.1.1.2.5.

Accuracy and Precision

2.1.1.2.6.

2.1.1.2.7.

2.1.1.2.8.

2.1.1.2.9.

Drift and Stability

2.1.1.2.10.

Repeatability and Reproducibility

2.1.2.

Signal Conditioning

2.1.2.1.

2.1.2.1.1.

Instrumentation Amplifiers

2.1.2.1.2.

Differential Amplifiers

2.1.2.1.3.

Isolation Amplifiers

2.1.2.1.4.

Noise Considerations in Amplification

2.1.2.2.

2.1.2.2.1.

2.1.2.2.2.

Digital Filters

2.1.2.2.3.

Adaptive Filters

2.1.2.3.

Signal Conversion

2.1.2.3.1.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

2.1.2.3.2.

Resolution and Sampling Rate

2.1.2.3.3.

Quantization Error

2.1.2.3.4.

Digital-to-Analog Conversion

2.1.3.

Noise and Artifacts

2.1.3.1.

Sources of Noise

2.1.3.1.1.

2.1.3.1.2.

2.1.3.1.3.

2.1.3.1.4.

Electromagnetic Interference

2.1.3.1.5.

Motion Artifacts

2.1.3.1.6.

Physiological Artifacts

2.1.3.2.

Noise Characterization

2.1.3.2.1.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

2.1.3.2.2.

2.1.3.2.3.

Noise Bandwidth

2.1.3.3.

Noise Reduction Techniques

2.1.3.3.1.

Shielding and Grounding

2.1.3.3.2.

2.1.3.3.3.

Signal Averaging

2.1.3.3.4.

Correlation Techniques

2.2.

Measurement of Biopotentials

2.2.1.

Origin of Biopotentials

2.2.1.1.

Resting Membrane Potential

2.2.1.2.

Action Potentials

2.2.1.2.1.

Depolarization and Repolarization

2.2.1.2.2.

2.2.1.3.

Ionic Basis of Biopotentials

2.2.1.3.1.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

2.2.1.3.2.

2.2.2.

2.2.2.1.

Types of Electrodes

2.2.2.1.1.

Surface Electrodes

2.2.2.1.1.1.

Ag/AgCl Electrodes

2.2.2.1.1.2.

2.2.2.1.2.

Needle Electrodes

2.2.2.1.3.

Microelectrodes

2.2.2.1.4.

Reference Electrodes

2.2.2.2.

Electrode-Skin Interface

2.2.2.2.1.

Impedance Characteristics

2.2.2.2.2.

Skin Preparation

2.2.2.2.3.

Electrode Gel and Paste

2.2.2.2.4.

Motion Artifacts

2.2.3.

Electrocardiography (ECG)

2.2.3.1.

Cardiac Electrophysiology

2.2.3.1.1.

Electrical Activity of the Heart

2.2.3.1.2.

Cardiac Conduction System

2.2.3.1.3.

2.2.3.2.

2.2.3.2.1.

Standard Limb Leads

2.2.3.2.2.

Augmented Limb Leads

2.2.3.2.3.

Precordial Leads

2.2.3.2.4.

Lead Placement and Configuration

2.2.3.3.

ECG Instrumentation

2.2.3.3.1.

2.2.3.3.2.

2.2.3.3.3.

Display and Recording Devices

2.2.3.3.4.

Arrhythmia Detection

2.2.4.

Electroencephalography (EEG)

2.2.4.1.

Brain Electrophysiology

2.2.4.1.1.

Neural Oscillations

2.2.4.1.2.

Brain Waves and States

2.2.4.1.2.1.

2.2.4.1.2.2.

2.2.4.1.2.3.

2.2.4.1.2.4.

2.2.4.1.3.

Sleep and Wakefulness Patterns

2.2.4.2.

Electrode Placement

2.2.4.2.1.

2.2.4.2.2.

Standardization

2.2.4.2.3.

2.2.4.3.

EEG Instrumentation

2.2.4.3.1.

2.2.4.3.2.

2.2.4.3.3.

Data Acquisition

2.2.4.3.4.

Artifact Removal

2.2.5.

Electromyography (EMG)

2.2.5.1.

Muscle Physiology

2.2.5.1.1.

Motor Unit Action Potentials

2.2.5.1.2.

Muscle Contraction Mechanisms

2.2.5.1.3.

Neuromuscular Junction

2.2.5.2.

2.2.5.2.1.

2.2.5.2.2.

2.2.5.2.3.

Applications and Limitations

2.2.5.3.

EMG Instrumentation

2.2.5.3.1.

2.2.5.3.2.

2.2.5.3.3.

Signal Analysis

2.2.5.3.4.

Fatigue Assessment

2.3.

Measurement of Non-Electrical Parameters

2.3.1.

Cardiovascular Measurements

2.3.1.1.

2.3.1.1.1.

Sphygmomanometry

2.3.1.1.2.

Korotkoff Sounds

2.3.1.1.3.

Invasive vs Non-invasive Methods

2.3.1.1.4.

Continuous Blood Pressure Monitoring

2.3.1.2.

2.3.1.2.1.

Electromagnetic Flowmeters

2.3.1.2.2.

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

2.3.1.2.3.

Thermal Dilution

2.3.1.3.

2.3.1.3.1.

Indicator Dilution Methods

2.3.1.3.2.

2.3.1.3.3.

2.3.1.3.4.

Impedance Cardiography

2.3.2.

Respiratory System Measurements

2.3.2.1.

2.3.2.1.1.

Lung Volumes and Capacities

2.3.2.1.2.

Flow-Volume Loops

2.3.2.1.3.

Forced Expiratory Volume

2.3.2.2.

2.3.2.2.1.

Oxygen Measurement

2.3.2.2.2.

Carbon Dioxide Measurement

2.3.2.2.3.

2.3.2.2.4.

Blood Gas Analysis

2.3.2.3.

Respiratory Rate and Pattern

2.3.2.3.1.

Impedance Pneumography

2.3.2.3.2.

Strain Gauge Methods

2.3.3.

Body Temperature Measurement

2.3.3.1.

Temperature Sensors

2.3.3.1.1.

2.3.3.1.2.

2.3.3.1.3.

2.3.3.2.

Measurement Sites

2.3.3.2.1.

Core Temperature

2.3.3.2.2.

Skin Temperature

2.3.3.3.

Infrared Thermometry

2.3.3.3.1.

Non-contact Measurement

2.3.3.3.2.

Thermal Imaging

2.3.4.

Chemical Biosensors

2.3.4.1.

Blood Glucose Monitoring

2.3.4.1.1.

Enzymatic Sensors

2.3.4.1.2.

Electrochemical Methods

2.3.4.1.3.

Non-invasive Techniques

2.3.4.2.

Blood Gas Analysis

2.3.4.2.1.

2.3.4.2.2.

pO2 Measurement

2.3.4.2.3.

pCO2 Measurement

2.3.4.2.4.

Ion-Selective Electrodes

2.3.4.3.

2.3.4.3.1.

Principles of Operation

2.3.4.3.2.

Beer-Lambert Law

2.3.4.3.3.

Limitations and Artifacts

2.3.4.3.4.

2.4.

Therapeutic and Life-Support Instrumentation

2.4.1.

Cardiac Pacemakers

2.4.1.1.

Types of Pacemakers

2.4.1.1.1.

2.4.1.1.2.

2.4.1.1.3.

2.4.1.2.

Sensing and Pacing Modes

2.4.1.2.1.

2.4.1.2.2.

Rate-Responsive Pacing

2.4.1.3.

Implantation and Programming

2.4.1.3.1.

2.4.1.3.2.

Parameter Optimization

2.4.2.

2.4.2.1.

External Defibrillators

2.4.2.1.1.

Manual Defibrillators

2.4.2.1.2.

Automated External Defibrillators

2.4.2.2.

Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators

2.4.2.3.

Energy Delivery Mechanisms

2.4.2.3.1.

Capacitor Discharge

2.4.2.3.2.

Waveform Optimization

2.4.2.4.

Safety Considerations

2.4.3.

2.4.3.1.

Types of Infusion Pumps

2.4.3.1.1.

2.4.3.1.2.

Peristaltic Pumps

2.4.3.1.3.

Volumetric Pumps

2.4.3.2.

Flow Control Mechanisms

2.4.3.2.1.

Pressure-Based Control

2.4.3.2.2.

Volume-Based Control

2.4.3.3.

2.4.3.3.1.

Occlusion Detection

2.4.3.3.2.

Air-in-Line Detection

2.4.4.

2.4.4.1.

Modes of Ventilation

2.4.4.1.1.

Volume-Controlled Ventilation

2.4.4.1.2.

Pressure-Controlled Ventilation

2.4.4.1.3.

Assist-Control Ventilation

2.4.4.2.

Sensors and Feedback Control

2.4.4.2.1.

2.4.4.2.2.

Pressure Sensors

2.4.4.2.3.

2.4.4.3.

Patient-Ventilator Interaction

2.4.4.3.1.

2.4.4.3.2.

2.4.4.3.3.

2.4.5.

Dialysis Machines

2.4.5.1.

Hemodialysis Principles

2.4.5.1.1.

Diffusion and Ultrafiltration

2.4.5.1.2.

Dialysate Composition

2.4.5.2.

Components and Operation

2.4.5.2.1.

2.4.5.2.2.

2.4.5.2.3.

Dialysate Circuit

2.4.5.3.

Monitoring and Safety

2.4.5.3.1.

Pressure Monitoring

2.4.5.3.2.

2.4.5.3.3.

Blood Leak Detection

2.5.

Electrical Safety in Medical Environments

2.5.1.

Electrical Hazards

2.5.1.1.

Macroshock Hazards

2.5.1.1.1.

Physiological Effects

2.5.1.1.2.

Current Thresholds

2.5.1.2.

Microshock Hazards

2.5.1.2.1.

Cardiac Catheter Patients

2.5.1.2.2.

2.5.2.

Leakage Currents

2.5.2.1.

Sources of Leakage

2.5.2.2.

Measurement Techniques

2.5.2.3.

Acceptable Limits

2.5.2.4.

Patient Auxiliary Current

2.5.3.

Protection Methods

2.5.3.1.

Grounding Systems

2.5.3.1.1.

Equipment Grounding

2.5.3.1.2.

Isolated Ground Systems

2.5.3.2.

Isolation Techniques

2.5.3.2.1.

Isolation Transformers

2.5.3.2.2.

Optical Isolation

2.5.3.3.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters

2.5.4.

Medical Device Safety Standards

2.5.4.1.

International Standards

2.5.4.1.1.

IEC 60601 Series

2.5.4.1.2.

2.5.4.2.

Hospital Safety Protocols

2.5.4.2.1.

Electrical Safety Programs

2.5.4.2.2.

Testing and Maintenance

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1. Fundamentals of Biomedical Engineering

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3. Principles of Medical Imaging