Nuclear Safety and Waste Management

2.

Principles of Nuclear Safety

2.1.

The Concept of Risk

2.1.1.

Risk Definition and Components

2.1.1.1.

Probability and Consequence

2.1.1.2.

Risk Perception vs. Actual Risk

2.1.2.

Hazard Identification

2.1.2.1.

Types of Hazards in Nuclear Facilities

2.1.2.1.1.

Radiological Hazards

2.1.2.1.2.

Chemical Hazards

2.1.2.1.3.

Industrial Hazards

2.1.2.2.

Source Term Identification

2.1.2.2.1.

Inventory Assessment

2.1.2.2.2.

Release Mechanisms

2.1.3.

Probability and Consequence

2.1.3.1.

Likelihood of Events

2.1.3.1.1.

Frequency Analysis

2.1.3.1.2.

Statistical Methods

2.1.3.2.

Severity of Outcomes

2.1.3.2.1.

Consequence Categories

2.1.3.2.2.

Impact Assessment

2.1.4.

Risk Assessment and Management

2.1.4.1.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

2.1.4.1.1.

2.1.4.1.2.

Numerical Risk Assessment

2.1.4.2.

2.1.4.2.1.

Probability-Consequence Grids

2.1.4.2.2.

Risk Acceptance Criteria

2.1.4.3.

Risk Reduction Strategies

2.1.4.3.1.

Risk Elimination

2.1.4.3.2.

Risk Mitigation

2.1.4.3.3.

2.2.

Fundamental Safety Functions

2.2.1.

Control of Reactivity

2.2.1.1.

Reactivity Control Mechanisms

2.2.1.1.1.

2.2.1.1.2.

2.2.1.1.3.

Burnable Poisons

2.2.1.2.

Shutdown Systems

2.2.1.2.1.

Primary Shutdown System

2.2.1.2.2.

Secondary Shutdown System

2.2.1.2.3.

Shutdown Margins

2.2.2.

Removal of Heat from the Core

2.2.2.1.

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

2.2.2.1.1.

2.2.2.1.2.

2.2.2.1.3.

2.2.2.2.

Cooling System Design

2.2.2.2.1.

Primary Cooling Circuit

2.2.2.2.2.

Secondary Cooling Circuit

2.2.2.2.3.

Ultimate Heat Sink

2.2.2.3.

Decay Heat Removal

2.2.2.3.1.

Decay Heat Characteristics

2.2.2.3.2.

Long-Term Cooling Requirements

2.2.3.

Confinement of Radioactive Material

2.2.3.1.

Barriers to Release

2.2.3.1.1.

2.2.3.1.2.

2.2.3.1.3.

Primary Circuit Boundary

2.2.3.1.4.

Containment Structure

2.2.3.2.

Containment Structures

2.2.3.2.1.

Containment Types

2.2.3.2.2.

Design Requirements

2.2.3.2.3.

Leak Rate Testing

2.3.

Defense-in-Depth Philosophy

2.3.1.

Concept and Principles

2.3.1.1.

Multiple Independent Layers

2.3.1.2.

Diversity and Redundancy

2.3.2.

Levels of Defense

2.3.2.1.

Prevention of Abnormal Operation

2.3.2.1.1.

Design Features

2.3.2.1.1.1.

Inherent Safety Features

2.3.2.1.1.2.

Passive Safety Systems

2.3.2.1.2.

Operational Controls

2.3.2.1.2.1.

Procedures and Training

2.3.2.1.2.2.

Quality Assurance

2.3.2.2.

Control of Abnormal Operation

2.3.2.2.1.

Detection and Response Systems

2.3.2.2.1.1.

Monitoring Systems

2.3.2.2.1.2.

2.3.2.2.2.

Operator Actions

2.3.2.2.2.1.

Emergency Procedures

2.3.2.2.2.2.

Decision Support Systems

2.3.2.3.

Control of Accidents within the Design Basis

2.3.2.3.1.

Engineered Safety Features

2.3.2.3.1.1.

Automatic Safety Systems

2.3.2.3.1.2.

2.3.2.3.2.

Safety System Performance

2.3.2.3.2.1.

Reliability Requirements

2.3.2.3.2.2.

Testing and Maintenance

2.3.2.4.

Control of Severe Plant Conditions

2.3.2.4.1.

Severe Accident Management

2.3.2.4.1.1.

Accident Management Guidelines

2.3.2.4.1.2.

Severe Accident Mitigation

2.3.2.4.2.

Beyond Design Basis Considerations

2.3.2.4.2.1.

External Events

2.3.2.4.2.2.

Common Cause Failures

2.3.2.5.

Mitigation of Radiological Consequences

2.3.2.5.1.

Emergency Preparedness

2.3.2.5.1.1.

On-site Emergency Response

2.3.2.5.1.2.

Emergency Planning Zones

2.3.2.5.2.

Off-site Response

2.3.2.5.2.1.

Protective Actions

2.3.2.5.2.2.

Recovery Planning

2.4.

ALARA Principle (As Low As Reasonably Achievable)

2.4.1.

ALARA Philosophy

2.4.1.1.

Optimization Principle

2.4.1.2.

Cost-Benefit Analysis

2.4.2.

Time, Distance, and Shielding

2.4.2.1.

Minimizing Exposure Time

2.4.2.1.1.

2.4.2.1.2.

Efficient Procedures

2.4.2.2.

Maximizing Distance

2.4.2.2.1.

Inverse Square Law

2.4.2.2.2.

Remote Operations

2.4.2.3.

Use of Shielding Materials

2.4.2.3.1.

Shielding Design

2.4.2.3.2.

Material Selection

2.4.3.

Engineering Controls

2.4.3.1.

Containment and Ventilation

2.4.3.1.1.

Containment Systems

2.4.3.1.2.

2.4.3.1.3.

Filtration Systems

2.4.3.2.

Remote Handling

2.4.3.2.1.

Robotic Systems

2.4.3.2.2.

Remote Maintenance

2.4.4.

Administrative Controls

2.4.4.1.

Work Planning and Procedures

2.4.4.1.1.

Radiation Work Permits

2.4.4.1.2.

2.4.4.2.

Training and Supervision

2.4.4.2.1.

Radiation Safety Training

2.4.4.2.2.

Qualified Personnel

2.4.4.3.

2.4.4.3.1.

Radiological Controlled Areas

2.4.4.3.2.

Personnel Monitoring

2.5.

2.5.1.

Definition and Attributes

2.5.1.1.

Leadership Commitment

2.5.1.1.1.

Management Involvement

2.5.1.1.2.

Resource Allocation

2.5.1.2.

Individual Responsibility

2.5.1.2.1.

Personal Accountability

2.5.1.2.2.

Professional Ethics

2.5.1.3.

Questioning Attitude

2.5.1.3.1.

Conservative Decision Making

2.5.1.3.2.

Continuous Improvement

2.5.2.

Promoting a Positive Safety Culture

2.5.2.1.

Training and Education

2.5.2.1.1.

Safety Awareness Programs

2.5.2.1.2.

Competency Development

2.5.2.2.

Communication and Reporting

2.5.2.2.1.

Open Communication

2.5.2.2.2.

Event Reporting Systems

2.5.2.3.

Recognition and Incentives

2.5.2.3.1.

Safety Performance Recognition

2.5.2.3.2.

Learning from Experience

2.5.3.

Organizational and Human Factors

2.5.3.1.

Human Error Prevention

2.5.3.1.1.

Error-Tolerant Design

2.5.3.1.2.

Human Factors Engineering

2.5.3.2.

Teamwork and Decision-Making

2.5.3.2.1.

Team Communication

2.5.3.2.2.

Decision Support Tools

2.5.3.3.

Organizational Learning

2.5.3.3.1.

Operating Experience Feedback

2.5.3.3.2.

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3. Reactor Safety Design and Engineering