Instrumental Chemistry

  1. Spectroscopic Methods
    1. Fundamentals of Spectroscopy
      1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
        1. Regions and Energy Ranges
          1. Wavelength and Frequency Relationships
            1. Energy Units and Conversions
              1. Photon Energy Calculations
              2. Interaction of Radiation and Matter
                1. Absorption Processes
                  1. Electronic Transitions
                    1. Vibrational Transitions
                      1. Rotational Transitions
                      2. Emission Processes
                        1. Spontaneous Emission
                          1. Stimulated Emission
                            1. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
                            2. Scattering Processes
                              1. Rayleigh Scattering
                                1. Raman Scattering
                                  1. Mie Scattering
                                  2. Reflection and Transmission
                                    1. Specular Reflection
                                      1. Diffuse Reflection
                                        1. Transmission Measurements
                                      2. Beer-Lambert Law
                                        1. Mathematical Expression
                                          1. Assumptions and Conditions
                                            1. Limitations and Deviations
                                              1. Chemical Deviations
                                                1. Instrumental Deviations
                                                  1. Stray Light Effects
                                              2. Instrumentation for Optical Spectroscopy
                                                1. Radiation Sources
                                                  1. Continuous Sources
                                                    1. Tungsten Lamps
                                                      1. Deuterium Lamps
                                                        1. Xenon Arc Lamps
                                                          1. Blackbody Sources
                                                          2. Line Sources
                                                            1. Hollow Cathode Lamps
                                                              1. Electrodeless Discharge Lamps
                                                                1. Laser Sources
                                                              2. Wavelength Selectors
                                                                1. Filters
                                                                  1. Absorption Filters
                                                                    1. Interference Filters
                                                                      1. Neutral Density Filters
                                                                      2. Monochromators
                                                                        1. Prism Monochromators
                                                                          1. Grating Monochromators
                                                                            1. Resolution and Dispersion
                                                                              1. Stray Light Considerations
                                                                            2. Sample Containers
                                                                              1. Material Selection
                                                                                1. Glass Cuvettes
                                                                                  1. Quartz Cuvettes
                                                                                    1. Plastic Cuvettes
                                                                                    2. Path Length Considerations
                                                                                      1. Cell Design and Geometry
                                                                                        1. Cleaning and Maintenance
                                                                                        2. Radiation Detectors
                                                                                          1. Photomultiplier Tubes
                                                                                            1. Operating Principles
                                                                                              1. Spectral Response
                                                                                                1. Noise Characteristics
                                                                                                2. Photodiodes
                                                                                                  1. Silicon Photodiodes
                                                                                                    1. Germanium Photodiodes
                                                                                                      1. Avalanche Photodiodes
                                                                                                      2. Diode Arrays
                                                                                                        1. Linear Diode Arrays
                                                                                                          1. Two-dimensional Arrays
                                                                                                            1. Readout Electronics
                                                                                                            2. Charge-Coupled Devices
                                                                                                              1. Operating Principles
                                                                                                                1. Quantum Efficiency
                                                                                                                  1. Dark Current and Noise
                                                                                                              2. Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                1. Principles and Theory
                                                                                                                  1. Electronic Transitions
                                                                                                                    1. Sigma to Sigma Star Transitions
                                                                                                                      1. Pi to Pi Star Transitions
                                                                                                                        1. n to Pi Star Transitions
                                                                                                                          1. Charge Transfer Transitions
                                                                                                                          2. Chromophores
                                                                                                                            1. Conjugated Systems
                                                                                                                              1. Aromatic Systems
                                                                                                                                1. Carbonyl Groups
                                                                                                                                  1. Metal Complexes
                                                                                                                                  2. Auxochromes
                                                                                                                                    1. Electron-donating Groups
                                                                                                                                      1. Electron-withdrawing Groups
                                                                                                                                        1. Solvent Effects
                                                                                                                                      2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                        1. Single-Beam Spectrophotometers
                                                                                                                                          1. Design and Components
                                                                                                                                            1. Operating Procedures
                                                                                                                                              1. Advantages and Limitations
                                                                                                                                              2. Double-Beam Spectrophotometers
                                                                                                                                                1. Design and Components
                                                                                                                                                  1. Reference Beam Compensation
                                                                                                                                                    1. Advantages and Limitations
                                                                                                                                                    2. Scanning vs Array Instruments
                                                                                                                                                      1. Sequential Scanning
                                                                                                                                                        1. Simultaneous Detection
                                                                                                                                                          1. Speed and Resolution Trade-offs
                                                                                                                                                        2. Sample Preparation
                                                                                                                                                          1. Solvent Selection
                                                                                                                                                            1. Concentration Considerations
                                                                                                                                                              1. pH Effects
                                                                                                                                                                1. Temperature Control
                                                                                                                                                                2. Applications
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Quantitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Single-component Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Multi-component Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Mixture Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Qualitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Identification of Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Structural Information
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Kinetic Studies
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Reaction Rate Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Enzyme Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Colorimetric Assays
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Complexation Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Redox Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                3. Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Principles and Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Molecular Vibrations
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Stretching Vibrations
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Symmetric Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Asymmetric Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Bending Vibrations
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. In-plane Bending
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Out-of-plane Bending
                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Combination and Overtone Bands
                                                                                                                                                                                              3. Selection Rules
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. IR Activity Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Raman Activity Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Mutual Exclusion Principle
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Group Frequencies
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Characteristic Frequencies
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Functional Group Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. IR Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Dispersive IR Spectrometers
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Prism Instruments
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Grating Instruments
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Double-beam Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Fourier Transform IR Spectrometers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Michelson Interferometer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Interferogram Generation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Fourier Transformation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Advantages of FTIR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Raman Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Laser Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Continuous Wave Lasers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Pulsed Lasers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Wavelength Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Optical Components
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Notch Filters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Edge Filters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Beam Splitters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Detection Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. CCD Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Photomultiplier Tubes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. InGaAs Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Sample Handling Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Solid Samples
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. KBr Pellets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Nujol Mulls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Diffuse Reflectance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Liquid Samples
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Transmission Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Capillary Films
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Solution Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Gas Samples
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Gas Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Long-path Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Matrix Isolation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Attenuated Total Reflectance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. ATR Crystals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Penetration Depth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Spectral Interpretation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Functional Group Region
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. O-H Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. N-H Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. C-H Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. C=O Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Fingerprint Region
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. C-C Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. C-O Stretching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Bending Vibrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Peak Assignment Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Spectral Databases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            3. Atomic Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Principles of Atomic Spectra
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Atomic Energy Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Electronic Configurations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Term Symbols
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Selection Rules
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Line Spectra
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Emission Lines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Absorption Lines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Line Broadening
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Atomization Methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Flame Atomization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Flame Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Temperature Profiles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Nebulization Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Electrothermal Atomization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Graphite Furnace Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Temperature Programming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Matrix Modifiers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Inductively Coupled Plasma
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Plasma Generation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Sample Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Excitation Conditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Principles of Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ground State Populations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Absorption Line Profiles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Light Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Monochromators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Background Correction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Deuterium Correction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Smith-Hieftje Correction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Zeeman Correction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Principles of Emission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Excited State Populations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Emission Intensities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Flame Emission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Alkali Metal Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Plasma Emission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. ICP-AES Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Multi-element Capabilities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Principles of Fluorescence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Excitation and Emission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Quantum Efficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Light Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Optical Arrangements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Detection Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Interferences in Atomic Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Spectral Interferences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Line Overlap
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Background Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Scattering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Chemical Interferences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Compound Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Ionization Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Matrix Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Physical Interferences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Viscosity Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Surface Tension Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Transport Interferences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Principles of Nuclear Spin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Magnetic Properties of Nuclei
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Nuclear Spin Quantum Numbers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Magnetic Moments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Gyromagnetic Ratios
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Resonance Condition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Larmor Frequency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Energy Level Splitting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Population Differences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Superconducting Magnets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Field Strength and Homogeneity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cryogenic Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Shimming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Radio-Frequency Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Transmitter Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Receiver Design
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Pulse Sequences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Sample Handling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Sample Tubes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Spinning Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Temperature Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Data Acquisition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Digitization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Fourier Transformation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Phase Correction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Chemical Shift
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Origin of Chemical Shift
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Electronic Shielding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Deshielding Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Reference Standards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Tetramethylsilane
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Internal Standards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. External Standards
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Factors Affecting Chemical Shift
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Electronegativity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Hybridization
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Aromatic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Solvent Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Spin-Spin Coupling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Coupling Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Through-bond Coupling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Through-space Coupling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Coupling Constants
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Magnitude and Sign
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Geminal Coupling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vicinal Coupling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Multiplicity Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. First-order Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Higher-order Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Spectral Interpretation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Proton NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Integration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Chemical Shift Ranges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Coupling Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Carbon-13 NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Decoupling Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Chemical Shift Ranges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Quantitative Aspects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Advanced NMR Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Two-Dimensional NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. COSY Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. HSQC Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. HMBC Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. NOESY Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Multinuclear NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Phosphorus-31 NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Fluorine-19 NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Nitrogen-15 NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Luminescence Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Principles of Luminescence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Photophysical Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Internal Conversion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Intersystem Crossing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Emission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Jablonski Diagram
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Energy Level Representation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Radiative Transitions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Non-radiative Transitions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Fluorescence vs Phosphorescence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Singlet and Triplet States
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lifetime Differences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Temperature Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Instrumentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Excitation Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Xenon Arc Lamps
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Mercury Lamps
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Laser Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. LED Sources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Monochromators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Excitation Monochromator
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Emission Monochromator
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Wavelength Accuracy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Detection Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Photomultiplier Tubes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. CCD Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Time-resolved Detection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Factors Affecting Luminescence
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Quenching Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Collisional Quenching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Static Quenching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Inner Filter Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Solvent Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Polarity Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Viscosity Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. pH Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Temperature Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Thermal Quenching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lifetime Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Quantitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Trace Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Environmental Monitoring
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Qualitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Compound Identification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Structural Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Biochemical Applications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Enzyme Assays
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Immunoassays
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. DNA Analysis

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Go to top

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    4. Mass Spectrometry