Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology

4.

Glacier Mass Balance

4.1.

Fundamental Concepts

4.1.1.

Definition of Mass Balance

4.1.2.

Mass Balance Equation

4.1.3.

Importance for Glacier Health

4.1.4.

Units of Measurement

4.2.

Accumulation Zone

4.2.1.

4.2.2.

4.2.3.

4.2.4.

Rime Deposition

4.2.5.

Refreezing of Meltwater

4.3.

4.3.1.

4.3.2.

4.3.3.

4.3.4.

Meltwater Runoff

4.3.5.

4.3.6.

Internal Melting

4.4.

Equilibrium Line Altitude

4.4.1.

Definition and Significance

4.4.2.

Methods of Determination

4.4.3.

ELA as a Climate Indicator

4.4.4.

Seasonal Variations

4.4.5.

Regional Patterns

4.5.

Mass Balance Gradients

4.5.1.

Accumulation Gradient

4.5.2.

Ablation Gradient

4.5.3.

4.6.

Measuring Mass Balance

4.6.1.

4.6.1.1.

Stakes and Snow Pits

4.6.1.2.

Density Measurements

4.6.1.3.

Stratigraphic Method

4.6.2.

Indirect Methods

4.6.2.1.

Geodetic Methods

4.6.2.2.

Hydrological Methods

4.6.2.3.

Remote Sensing Approaches

4.6.2.4.

Gravimetric Methods

4.7.

Glacier Response to Climate Forcing

4.7.1.

Sensitivity to Temperature

4.7.2.

Sensitivity to Precipitation

4.7.3.

Lag Time and Response Time

4.7.4.

Feedback Mechanisms

4.7.5.

Threshold Effects

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3. Glacier Formation and Classification

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5. Glacier Dynamics and Ice Flow