Electron Microscopy

  1. Specimen Preparation
    1. General Considerations
      1. Conductivity Requirements
        1. Avoiding Charging Artifacts
          1. Conductive Pathways
            1. Coating Strategies
            2. Material-Specific Considerations
              1. Insulators vs Conductors
                1. Semiconductor Samples
              2. Stability under Vacuum and Electron Beam
                1. Beam Damage Prevention
                  1. Dose Rate Limitations
                    1. Cryogenic Protection
                    2. Vacuum Compatibility
                      1. Outgassing Considerations
                        1. Volatile Component Removal
                      2. Specimen Mounting
                        1. Mounting Media and Holders
                          1. Adhesive Selection
                            1. Mechanical Fixtures
                            2. Orientation and Labeling
                              1. Crystallographic Orientation
                                1. Sample Identification
                            3. SEM Sample Preparation
                              1. Cleaning and Drying
                                1. Removal of Contaminants
                                  1. Solvent Cleaning
                                    1. Ultrasonic Cleaning
                                    2. Drying Techniques
                                      1. Critical Point Drying
                                        1. CO2 Transition Method
                                          1. Apparatus and Procedure
                                          2. Freeze Drying
                                            1. Sublimation Process
                                              1. Temperature Control
                                              2. Air Drying Limitations
                                                1. Surface Tension Effects
                                                  1. Structural Collapse
                                              3. Conductive Coating
                                                1. Sputter Coating
                                                  1. Gold Coating
                                                    1. Grain Size Considerations
                                                      1. Thickness Control
                                                      2. Platinum Coating
                                                        1. Fine Grain Structure
                                                          1. High Resolution Applications
                                                          2. Other Metal Coatings
                                                            1. Palladium
                                                              1. Chromium
                                                            2. Carbon Coating
                                                              1. Evaporation Methods
                                                                1. Applications and Limitations
                                                                  1. X-ray Analysis Compatibility
                                                                    1. Resolution Considerations
                                                                  2. Coating Thickness Optimization
                                                                    1. Conductivity vs Resolution
                                                                      1. Monitoring Methods
                                                                    2. Mounting on Stubs
                                                                      1. Adhesives and Tapes
                                                                        1. Carbon Tape
                                                                          1. Silver Paint
                                                                            1. Conductive Adhesives
                                                                            2. Orientation for Imaging
                                                                              1. Cross-Section Preparation
                                                                                1. Surface Exposure
                                                                              2. Preparation of Non-Conductive Samples
                                                                                1. Low Voltage Imaging
                                                                                  1. Variable Pressure Techniques
                                                                                    1. Coating Alternatives
                                                                                      1. Ion Beam Coating
                                                                                        1. Plasma Treatment
                                                                                    2. TEM Sample Preparation
                                                                                      1. Requirement for Electron Transparency
                                                                                        1. Thickness Criteria
                                                                                          1. Material-Dependent Limits
                                                                                            1. Energy-Dependent Transmission
                                                                                            2. Uniformity Requirements
                                                                                              1. Thickness Variations
                                                                                                1. Edge Effects
                                                                                              2. Mechanical Thinning and Polishing
                                                                                                1. Grinding and Polishing
                                                                                                  1. Abrasive Selection
                                                                                                    1. Sequential Grit Reduction
                                                                                                    2. Dimpling
                                                                                                      1. Dimple Grinder Operation
                                                                                                        1. Thickness Monitoring
                                                                                                        2. Precision Ion Polishing System
                                                                                                          1. Low Angle Ion Milling
                                                                                                            1. Final Thinning Stage
                                                                                                          2. Electropolishing
                                                                                                            1. Electrolyte Selection
                                                                                                              1. Material-Specific Solutions
                                                                                                                1. Temperature Control
                                                                                                                2. Process Control
                                                                                                                  1. Current Density Optimization
                                                                                                                    1. Voltage Control
                                                                                                                      1. Perforation Detection
                                                                                                                      2. Safety Considerations
                                                                                                                        1. Chemical Handling
                                                                                                                          1. Ventilation Requirements
                                                                                                                        2. Ultramicrotomy
                                                                                                                          1. Sectioning Techniques
                                                                                                                            1. Section Thickness Control
                                                                                                                              1. Cutting Speed Optimization
                                                                                                                              2. Knife Materials
                                                                                                                                1. Diamond Knives
                                                                                                                                  1. Glass Knives
                                                                                                                                  2. Sample Embedding
                                                                                                                                    1. Resin Selection
                                                                                                                                      1. Polymerization Control
                                                                                                                                      2. Cryo-Ultramicrotomy
                                                                                                                                        1. Frozen Section Preparation
                                                                                                                                          1. Temperature Control
                                                                                                                                        2. Ion Milling
                                                                                                                                          1. Focused Ion Beam Milling
                                                                                                                                            1. Site-Specific Preparation
                                                                                                                                              1. Target Area Selection
                                                                                                                                                1. Protective Layer Deposition
                                                                                                                                                2. Lift-Out Techniques
                                                                                                                                                  1. In-Situ Lift-Out
                                                                                                                                                    1. Ex-Situ Lift-Out
                                                                                                                                                    2. Cross-Section Preparation
                                                                                                                                                      1. Lamella Preparation
                                                                                                                                                        1. Final Thinning
                                                                                                                                                      2. Broad Beam Ion Milling
                                                                                                                                                        1. Thinning Large Areas
                                                                                                                                                          1. Ion Gun Configuration
                                                                                                                                                            1. Angle and Energy Optimization
                                                                                                                                                              1. Artifact Minimization
                                                                                                                                                                1. Preferential Sputtering
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Surface Damage
                                                                                                                                                              2. Replica Methods
                                                                                                                                                                1. Surface Replication
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Carbon Replica Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Plastic Replica Methods
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Shadowing Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Metal Shadowing
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Angle and Thickness Control
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Extraction Replicas
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Precipitate Extraction
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Chemical Etching
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Powder Sample Dispersion
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Grid Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Support Film Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Grid Material Choice
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Suspension and Drying
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Solvent Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Dispersion Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Concentration Optimization
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Cryo-Preparation Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vitrification
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Plunge Freezing
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. High Pressure Freezing
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Freeze-Fracture and Freeze-Etching
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Fracture Plane Control
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sublimation Conditions
                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Cryo-Transfer Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Contamination Prevention
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Temperature Maintenance

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                                                                                                                                                                                            4. Scanning Electron Microscopy

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                                                                                                                                                                                            6. Analytical Electron Microscopy