Computer Organization and Architecture

  1. Storage Systems
    1. Magnetic Disk Storage
      1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD) Physical Structure
        1. Disk Platters
          1. Read/Write Heads
            1. Head Actuator Assembly
              1. Spindle Motor
              2. Disk Organization
                1. Tracks and Cylinders
                  1. Sectors and Blocks
                    1. Disk Formatting
                      1. Low-Level Formatting
                        1. High-Level Formatting
                      2. Disk Performance Characteristics
                        1. Seek Time
                          1. Average Seek Time
                            1. Track-to-Track Seek Time
                            2. Rotational Latency
                              1. Average Rotational Delay
                              2. Data Transfer Time
                                1. Internal Transfer Rate
                                  1. External Transfer Rate
                                  2. Total Access Time Calculation
                                  3. Disk Scheduling Algorithms
                                    1. First-Come First-Served (FCFS)
                                      1. Shortest Seek Time First (SSTF)
                                        1. SCAN (Elevator Algorithm)
                                          1. C-SCAN (Circular SCAN)
                                            1. LOOK and C-LOOK
                                              1. Algorithm Performance Comparison
                                              2. Disk Reliability and Error Handling
                                                1. Error Types
                                                  1. Error Detection Methods
                                                    1. Error Correction Techniques
                                                      1. Bad Block Management
                                                    2. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
                                                      1. RAID Concepts and Objectives
                                                        1. Performance Improvement
                                                          1. Reliability Enhancement
                                                            1. Cost Considerations
                                                            2. RAID Implementation Levels
                                                              1. Hardware RAID
                                                                1. Software RAID
                                                                2. Standard RAID Levels
                                                                  1. RAID 0 (Striping)
                                                                    1. Data Distribution
                                                                      1. Performance Benefits
                                                                        1. Reliability Concerns
                                                                        2. RAID 1 (Mirroring)
                                                                          1. Data Duplication
                                                                            1. Read Performance
                                                                              1. Write Performance
                                                                                1. Fault Tolerance
                                                                                2. RAID 2 (Bit-Level Striping with Hamming Code)
                                                                                  1. Error Detection and Correction
                                                                                    1. Practical Limitations
                                                                                    2. RAID 3 (Bit-Level Striping with Parity)
                                                                                      1. Parity Disk Usage
                                                                                        1. Performance Characteristics
                                                                                        2. RAID 4 (Block-Level Striping with Parity)
                                                                                          1. Parity Bottleneck
                                                                                          2. RAID 5 (Block-Level Striping with Distributed Parity)
                                                                                            1. Parity Distribution
                                                                                              1. Performance and Reliability Balance
                                                                                              2. RAID 6 (Block-Level Striping with Double Parity)
                                                                                                1. Dual Parity Protection
                                                                                                  1. Multiple Disk Failure Tolerance
                                                                                                2. Nested RAID Levels
                                                                                                  1. RAID 10 (RAID 1+0)
                                                                                                    1. RAID 01 (RAID 0+1)
                                                                                                      1. Performance and Reliability Comparison
                                                                                                      2. RAID Performance Analysis
                                                                                                        1. Read Performance
                                                                                                          1. Write Performance
                                                                                                            1. Rebuild Performance
                                                                                                          2. Solid-State Drives (SSDs)
                                                                                                            1. Flash Memory Technology
                                                                                                              1. NAND Flash Memory
                                                                                                                1. Single-Level Cell (SLC)
                                                                                                                  1. Multi-Level Cell (MLC)
                                                                                                                    1. Triple-Level Cell (TLC)
                                                                                                                      1. Quad-Level Cell (QLC)
                                                                                                                      2. NOR Flash Memory
                                                                                                                        1. Flash Memory Operations
                                                                                                                          1. Program Operation
                                                                                                                            1. Erase Operation
                                                                                                                              1. Read Operation
                                                                                                                            2. SSD Architecture and Components
                                                                                                                              1. Flash Memory Controller
                                                                                                                                1. Error Correction
                                                                                                                                  1. Wear Leveling
                                                                                                                                    1. Bad Block Management
                                                                                                                                    2. Host Interface
                                                                                                                                      1. SATA Interface
                                                                                                                                        1. PCIe Interface
                                                                                                                                          1. NVMe Protocol
                                                                                                                                          2. Cache Memory
                                                                                                                                            1. Over-Provisioning
                                                                                                                                            2. SSD Management Techniques
                                                                                                                                              1. Wear Leveling Algorithms
                                                                                                                                                1. Static Wear Leveling
                                                                                                                                                  1. Dynamic Wear Leveling
                                                                                                                                                  2. Garbage Collection
                                                                                                                                                    1. Background Garbage Collection
                                                                                                                                                      1. Foreground Garbage Collection
                                                                                                                                                      2. Write Amplification
                                                                                                                                                        1. Causes and Effects
                                                                                                                                                          1. Minimization Techniques
                                                                                                                                                        2. SSD vs HDD Comparison
                                                                                                                                                          1. Performance Characteristics
                                                                                                                                                            1. Random Access Performance
                                                                                                                                                              1. Sequential Access Performance
                                                                                                                                                                1. Latency Comparison
                                                                                                                                                                2. Reliability Factors
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Endurance Ratings
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Power Consumption
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cost Considerations
                                                                                                                                                                    3. Optical Storage Systems
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Optical Storage Principles
                                                                                                                                                                        1. CD Technology
                                                                                                                                                                          1. DVD Technology
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Blu-ray Technology
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Tape Storage Systems
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Magnetic Tape Technology
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Tape Drive Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Tape Storage Applications

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                                                                                                                                                                                6. Input/Output (I/O) Organization

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                                                                                                                                                                                8. Parallel Processing and Advanced Architectures