Computer Organization and Architecture

1. Input/Output (I/O) Organization
   1. I/O System Architecture
      1. I/O Module Functions
         1. Device Control
         2. Data Buffering
         3. Error Detection
         4. Communication with CPU
      2. I/O Module Structure
         1. Device Interface
         2. CPU Interface
         3. Control Logic
      3. I/O Interface Standards
         1. Parallel Interfaces
         2. Serial Interfaces
         3. Standardization Benefits
   2. I/O Addressing Methods
      1. Memory-Mapped I/O
         1. Address Space Sharing
         2. Instruction Set Implications
         3. Advantages and Disadvantages
      2. Isolated I/O (Port-Mapped I/O)
         1. Separate Address Spaces
         2. Special I/O Instructions
         3. Advantages and Disadvantages
   3. I/O Data Transfer Techniques
      1. Programmed I/O
         1. CPU-Controlled Transfer
         2. Polling Mechanism
            1. Status Register Checking
            2. Busy-Waiting
         3. Advantages and Disadvantages
      2. Interrupt-Driven I/O
         1. Interrupt Concepts
         2. Interrupt Cycle
            1. Interrupt Request
            2. Interrupt Acknowledgment
            3. Interrupt Service
         3. Interrupt Handling Process
            1. Context Saving
            2. Interrupt Service Routine
            3. Context Restoration
         4. Interrupt Priority Systems
            1. Fixed Priority
            2. Rotating Priority
         5. Interrupt Vector Table
         6. Nested Interrupts
         7. Advantages and Disadvantages
      3. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
         1. DMA Concepts and Benefits
         2. DMA Controller Architecture
            1. DMA Registers
            2. DMA Control Logic
         3. DMA Operation Modes
            1. Burst Mode (Block Transfer)
            2. Cycle Stealing Mode
            3. Transparent Mode
         4. DMA Transfer Process
            1. DMA Setup
            2. Data Transfer
            3. Transfer Completion
         5. DMA Arbitration
         6. Advantages and Disadvantages
   4. Bus Systems and Interconnection
      1. Bus Architecture Fundamentals
         1. Bus Definition and Purpose
         2. Bus Classification
      2. Bus Structure Components
         1. Data Lines
            1. Data Width Considerations
            2. Bidirectional Data Transfer
         2. Address Lines
            1. Address Space Limitations
            2. Address Multiplexing
         3. Control Lines
            1. Read/Write Control
            2. Bus Grant/Request
            3. Interrupt Lines
            4. Clock Signals
      3. Bus Operation
         1. Bus Cycles
         2. Bus Timing
         3. Bus Protocols
      4. Bus Arbitration Mechanisms
         1. Centralized Arbitration
            1. Daisy Chain Arbitration
            2. Centralized Arbiter
               1. Fixed Priority
               2. Rotating Priority
         2. Distributed Arbitration
            1. Self-Selection
            2. Collision Detection
      5. Bus Performance Factors
         1. Bus Bandwidth
         2. Bus Latency
         3. Bus Utilization
      6. Modern Bus Standards
         1. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
            1. PCI Architecture
            2. PCI Configuration
         2. PCI Express (PCIe)
            1. Serial Communication
            2. Lane Configuration
            3. PCIe Generations
         3. Universal Serial Bus (USB)
            1. USB Topology
            2. USB Data Transfer Types
            3. USB Versions
         4. Serial ATA (SATA)
            1. SATA Architecture
            2. SATA Versions