Climate Change Science and Adaptation

  1. Evidence for Anthropogenic Climate Change
    1. Paleoclimate Records
      1. Ice Core Analysis
        1. Ice Core Extraction
          1. Drilling Techniques
            1. Core Processing
            2. Greenhouse Gas Records
              1. CO2 Concentrations
                1. CH4 Concentrations
                  1. N2O Concentrations
                  2. Temperature Proxies
                    1. Isotopic Analysis
                      1. Annual Layer Counting
                      2. Atmospheric Composition History
                        1. Pre-industrial Baselines
                          1. Natural Variability Ranges
                        2. Tree Ring Analysis
                          1. Dendrochronology Principles
                            1. Annual Growth Rings
                              1. Cross-dating Methods
                              2. Climate Signals in Growth Patterns
                                1. Temperature Reconstruction
                                  1. Precipitation Reconstruction
                                  2. Limitations and Uncertainties
                                    1. Species-specific Responses
                                      1. Non-climatic Factors
                                    2. Marine and Lake Sediments
                                      1. Sediment Core Collection
                                        1. Coring Techniques
                                          1. Dating Methods
                                          2. Marine Sediments
                                            1. Foraminifera Analysis
                                              1. Ocean Temperature Records
                                              2. Lake Sediments
                                                1. Varve Analysis
                                                  1. Terrestrial Climate Records
                                                  2. Fossil Pollen Analysis
                                                    1. Vegetation History
                                                      1. Climate Inference
                                                    2. Coral Records
                                                      1. Coral Growth Patterns
                                                        1. Annual Growth Bands
                                                          1. Seasonal Variations
                                                          2. Isotopic Analysis
                                                            1. Oxygen Isotopes
                                                              1. Carbon Isotopes
                                                              2. Sea Surface Temperature Reconstruction
                                                                1. Tropical Ocean Records
                                                                  1. ENSO History
                                                                2. Other Proxy Records
                                                                  1. Speleothems
                                                                    1. Glacier Records
                                                                      1. Historical Documents
                                                                    2. The Human Fingerprint
                                                                      1. Industrial Revolution and Emissions
                                                                        1. Historical Timeline
                                                                          1. Pre-industrial Period
                                                                            1. Early Industrial Period
                                                                              1. Modern Industrial Era
                                                                              2. Fossil Fuel Development
                                                                                1. Coal Era
                                                                                  1. Oil and Gas Era
                                                                                    1. Energy Transitions
                                                                                  2. Anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas Sources
                                                                                    1. Carbon Dioxide Sources
                                                                                      1. Fossil Fuel Combustion
                                                                                        1. Coal Burning
                                                                                          1. Oil Consumption
                                                                                            1. Natural Gas Use
                                                                                            2. Land Use Change
                                                                                              1. Deforestation
                                                                                                1. Agricultural Expansion
                                                                                                2. Industrial Processes
                                                                                                  1. Cement Production
                                                                                                    1. Steel Manufacturing
                                                                                                  2. Methane Sources
                                                                                                    1. Agriculture
                                                                                                      1. Livestock Production
                                                                                                        1. Rice Cultivation
                                                                                                        2. Fossil Fuel Industry
                                                                                                          1. Coal Mining
                                                                                                            1. Oil and Gas Extraction
                                                                                                            2. Waste Management
                                                                                                              1. Landfills
                                                                                                                1. Wastewater Treatment
                                                                                                              2. Nitrous Oxide Sources
                                                                                                                1. Agricultural Fertilizers
                                                                                                                  1. Synthetic Fertilizer Use
                                                                                                                    1. Soil Emissions
                                                                                                                    2. Industrial Processes
                                                                                                                      1. Nitric Acid Production
                                                                                                                        1. Fossil Fuel Combustion
                                                                                                                      2. Fluorinated Gases
                                                                                                                        1. Hydrofluorocarbons
                                                                                                                          1. Perfluorocarbons
                                                                                                                            1. Sulfur Hexafluoride
                                                                                                                        2. The Global Carbon Cycle
                                                                                                                          1. Natural Carbon Reservoirs
                                                                                                                            1. Atmospheric Carbon
                                                                                                                              1. CO2 Concentrations
                                                                                                                                1. Seasonal Variations
                                                                                                                                2. Oceanic Carbon
                                                                                                                                  1. Dissolved Inorganic Carbon
                                                                                                                                    1. Marine Carbon Pump
                                                                                                                                    2. Terrestrial Carbon
                                                                                                                                      1. Vegetation Carbon
                                                                                                                                        1. Soil Carbon
                                                                                                                                        2. Geological Carbon
                                                                                                                                          1. Fossil Carbon Deposits
                                                                                                                                            1. Carbonate Rocks
                                                                                                                                          2. Carbon Fluxes
                                                                                                                                            1. Natural Carbon Sources
                                                                                                                                              1. Plant and Soil Respiration
                                                                                                                                                1. Ocean-Atmosphere Exchange
                                                                                                                                                  1. Volcanic Emissions
                                                                                                                                                  2. Natural Carbon Sinks
                                                                                                                                                    1. Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                      1. Ocean Carbon Uptake
                                                                                                                                                        1. Weathering Processes
                                                                                                                                                      2. Human Perturbation
                                                                                                                                                        1. Fossil Fuel Emissions
                                                                                                                                                          1. Annual Emission Rates
                                                                                                                                                            1. Cumulative Emissions
                                                                                                                                                            2. Land Use Change Effects
                                                                                                                                                              1. Deforestation Impacts
                                                                                                                                                                1. Agricultural Conversion
                                                                                                                                                                2. Carbon Budget Imbalance
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Airborne Fraction
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Sink Capacity Changes
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Ocean Acidification
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Chemical Processes
                                                                                                                                                                      1. CO2 Dissolution
                                                                                                                                                                        1. pH Changes
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Biological Impacts
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Calcifying Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Marine Food Webs
                                                                                                                                                                            2. Regional Variations
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Arctic Ocean Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Tropical Ocean Effects
                                                                                                                                                                            3. Observed Climate Changes
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Temperature Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Global Surface Temperature
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Temperature Records
                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Ocean Heat Content
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Upper Ocean Warming
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Deep Ocean Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Regional Temperature Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Arctic Amplification
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Land-Ocean Contrasts
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Hydrological Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Precipitation Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Regional Variability
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Extreme Precipitation
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Heavy Rainfall Events
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Drought Frequency
                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Snow and Ice Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Snow Cover Extent
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Seasonal Timing Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Ocean Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Sea Surface Temperature
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Global Warming Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Regional Hotspots
                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Ocean Circulation Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Thermohaline Circulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Current Strength Variations
                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Sea Level Rise
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Global Mean Sea Level
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Regional Variations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Thermal Expansion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Ice Mass Contributions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Cryosphere Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Arctic Sea Ice Decline
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Thickness Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Seasonal Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Glacier Mass Loss
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Global Glacier Retreat
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Regional Variations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Ice Sheet Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Greenland Ice Sheet
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Mass Balance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Surface Melting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Antarctic Ice Sheet
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. West Antarctic Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. East Antarctic Stability
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Permafrost Thaw
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Temperature Increases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Active Layer Deepening
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Carbon Release

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Foundations of Climate Science

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Climate Modeling and Future Projections