Cancer Biology

7.

Cancer Diagnosis and Staging

7.1.

Diagnostic Approaches

7.1.1.

Clinical Presentation

7.1.1.1.

Signs and Symptoms

7.1.1.1.1.

7.1.1.1.2.

Systemic Effects

7.1.1.1.3.

Paraneoplastic Syndromes

7.1.1.2.

Physical Examination

7.1.1.2.1.

Palpable Masses

7.1.1.2.2.

Lymph Node Assessment

7.1.1.2.3.

Organ-Specific Findings

7.1.2.

Laboratory Tests

7.1.2.1.

Complete Blood Count

7.1.2.1.1.

Anemia Detection

7.1.2.1.2.

Leukocyte Abnormalities

7.1.2.1.3.

Platelet Changes

7.1.2.2.

Blood Chemistry

7.1.2.2.1.

Liver Function Tests

7.1.2.2.2.

Kidney Function Tests

7.1.2.2.3.

Electrolyte Imbalances

7.1.2.3.

7.1.2.3.1.

Protein Biomarkers

7.1.2.3.1.1.

7.1.2.3.1.2.

7.1.2.3.1.3.

7.1.2.3.1.4.

7.1.2.3.2.

7.1.2.3.2.1.

7.1.2.3.2.2.

Alkaline Phosphatase

7.1.2.3.3.

Hormone Markers

7.1.2.3.3.1.

7.1.2.3.3.2.

7.1.3.

Tissue Sampling

7.1.3.1.

Biopsy Techniques

7.1.3.1.1.

Fine Needle Aspiration

7.1.3.1.2.

Core Needle Biopsy

7.1.3.1.3.

Surgical Biopsy

7.1.3.1.4.

Endoscopic Biopsy

7.1.3.2.

Cytological Examination

7.1.3.2.1.

Cell Morphology

7.1.3.2.2.

Nuclear Features

7.1.3.2.3.

Mitotic Activity

7.1.3.3.

Histopathological Analysis

7.1.3.3.1.

Tissue Architecture

7.1.3.3.2.

Cellular Differentiation

7.1.3.3.3.

Invasion Patterns

7.1.3.3.4.

Necrosis Assessment

7.1.4.

Medical Imaging

7.1.4.1.

7.1.4.1.1.

7.1.4.1.2.

7.1.4.1.3.

7.1.4.2.

Computed Tomography

7.1.4.2.1.

Contrast Enhancement

7.1.4.2.2.

Multi-phase Imaging

7.1.4.2.3.

3D Reconstruction

7.1.4.3.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

7.1.4.3.1.

T1-weighted Images

7.1.4.3.2.

T2-weighted Images

7.1.4.3.3.

Diffusion-weighted Imaging

7.1.4.3.4.

7.1.4.4.

Nuclear Medicine

7.1.4.4.1.

Positron Emission Tomography

7.1.4.4.1.1.

7.1.4.4.1.2.

Amino Acid Tracers

7.1.4.4.1.3.

Proliferation Tracers

7.1.4.4.2.

Single Photon Emission CT

7.1.4.4.3.

Bone Scintigraphy

7.1.4.5.

7.1.4.5.1.

Abdominal Ultrasound

7.1.4.5.2.

Transvaginal Ultrasound

7.1.4.5.3.

Endoscopic Ultrasound

7.1.5.

Molecular Diagnostics

7.1.5.1.

7.1.5.1.1.

Mutation Detection

7.1.5.1.2.

Copy Number Analysis

7.1.5.1.3.

Microsatellite Instability

7.1.5.2.

7.1.5.2.1.

Gene Expression Profiling

7.1.5.2.2.

Fusion Gene Detection

7.1.5.2.3.

microRNA Analysis

7.1.5.3.

Protein Analysis

7.1.5.3.1.

Immunohistochemistry

7.1.5.3.2.

7.1.5.3.3.

Mass Spectrometry

7.1.5.4.

Cytogenetic Analysis

7.1.5.4.1.

7.1.5.4.2.

Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization

7.1.5.4.3.

Comparative Genomic Hybridization

7.2.

Liquid Biopsies

7.2.1.

Circulating Tumor Cells

7.2.1.1.

CTC Isolation Methods

7.2.1.1.1.

Size-Based Separation

7.2.1.1.2.

Immunomagnetic Capture

7.2.1.1.3.

Microfluidic Devices

7.2.1.2.

CTC Characterization

7.2.1.2.1.

Morphological Analysis

7.2.1.2.2.

Molecular Profiling

7.2.1.2.3.

Functional Assays

7.2.2.

Circulating Tumor DNA

7.2.2.1.

ctDNA Detection

7.2.2.1.1.

7.2.2.1.2.

Next-Generation Sequencing

7.2.2.1.3.

BEAMing Technology

7.2.2.2.

Mutation Analysis

7.2.2.2.1.

Hotspot Mutations

7.2.2.2.2.

Copy Number Variations

7.2.2.2.3.

Structural Variants

7.2.3.

Extracellular Vesicles

7.2.3.1.

Exosome Isolation

7.2.3.1.1.

Ultracentrifugation

7.2.3.1.2.

Size Exclusion Chromatography

7.2.3.1.3.

7.2.3.2.

7.2.3.2.1.

Protein Content

7.2.3.2.2.

7.2.3.2.3.

7.3.

Staging and Grading Systems

7.3.1.

TNM Classification

7.3.1.1.

Primary Tumor (T)

7.3.1.1.1.

7.3.1.1.2.

7.3.1.1.3.

Organ Involvement

7.3.1.2.

Regional Lymph Nodes (N)

7.3.1.2.1.

Number of Involved Nodes

7.3.1.2.2.

Location of Involved Nodes

7.3.1.2.3.

Extranodal Extension

7.3.1.3.

Distant Metastasis (M)

7.3.1.3.1.

Presence of Metastases

7.3.1.3.2.

Number of Metastatic Sites

7.3.1.3.3.

Organ-Specific Metastases

7.3.2.

7.3.2.1.

Stage I (Early)

7.3.2.2.

Stage II (Locally Advanced)

7.3.2.3.

Stage III (Regional Spread)

7.3.2.4.

Stage IV (Distant Metastases)

7.3.3.

Histological Grading

7.3.3.1.

Grade 1 (Well Differentiated)

7.3.3.2.

Grade 2 (Moderately Differentiated)

7.3.3.3.

Grade 3 (Poorly Differentiated)

7.3.3.4.

Grade 4 (Undifferentiated)

7.3.4.

Specialized Staging Systems

7.3.4.1.

Hematological Malignancies

7.3.4.1.1.

Ann Arbor Staging

7.3.4.1.2.

International Prognostic Index

7.3.4.2.

Gynecological Cancers

7.3.4.2.1.

7.3.4.3.

Pediatric Tumors

7.3.4.3.1.

COG Risk Stratification

7.4.

Prognostic and Predictive Factors

7.4.1.

Clinical Factors

7.4.1.1.

7.4.1.2.

Performance Status

7.4.1.3.

7.4.2.

Pathological Factors

7.4.2.1.

7.4.2.2.

Histological Type

7.4.2.3.

Grade and Differentiation

7.4.2.4.

Lymphovascular Invasion

7.4.3.

Molecular Factors

7.4.3.1.

Biomarker Expression

7.4.3.2.

Genetic Alterations

7.4.3.3.

Gene Expression Signatures

7.4.4.

Treatment Response Markers

7.4.4.1.

Predictive Biomarkers

7.4.4.2.

Resistance Markers

7.4.4.3.

Pharmacogenomic Factors

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