Zoology (Animal Biology)

7.

Animal Form and Function: Physiology

7.1.

Support and Movement

7.1.1.

Skeletal Systems

7.1.1.1.

Hydrostatic Skeletons

7.1.1.1.1.

Fluid-Filled Cavities

7.1.1.1.2.

Muscle Arrangements

7.1.1.1.3.

Locomotion Mechanisms

7.1.1.2.

7.1.1.2.1.

External Support Structures

7.1.1.2.2.

Molting Requirements

7.1.1.2.3.

Protection Functions

7.1.1.3.

7.1.1.3.1.

Internal Support Systems

7.1.1.3.2.

Growth Accommodation

7.1.1.3.3.

Mineral Composition

7.1.2.

Muscular Systems

7.1.2.1.

Types of Muscle Tissue

7.1.2.1.1.

7.1.2.1.1.1.

Involuntary Control

7.1.2.1.1.2.

Organ Wall Functions

7.1.2.1.2.

Skeletal Muscle

7.1.2.1.2.1.

Voluntary Control

7.1.2.1.2.2.

Striated Structure

7.1.2.1.3.

7.1.2.1.3.1.

Rhythmic Contractions

7.1.2.1.3.2.

Intercalated Discs

7.1.2.2.

Muscle Contraction Mechanisms

7.1.2.2.1.

Sliding Filament Theory

7.1.2.2.1.1.

Actin and Myosin Interactions

7.1.2.2.1.2.

Cross-Bridge Cycling

7.1.2.2.2.

Neuromuscular Junction

7.1.2.2.2.1.

Synaptic Transmission

7.1.2.2.2.2.

Motor Unit Activation

7.1.2.2.3.

Energy Requirements

7.1.2.2.4.

Muscle Fiber Types

7.2.

Nutrition and Digestion

7.2.1.

Feeding Mechanisms

7.2.1.1.

7.2.1.1.1.

Particle Capture

7.2.1.1.2.

Water Processing

7.2.1.2.

Deposit Feeding

7.2.1.2.1.

Sediment Processing

7.2.1.2.2.

Organic Matter Extraction

7.2.1.3.

7.2.1.3.1.

Liquid Nutrition

7.2.1.3.2.

Piercing Mechanisms

7.2.1.4.

7.2.1.4.1.

Large Food Items

7.2.1.4.2.

Mechanical Processing

7.2.2.

Digestive Systems

7.2.2.1.

Incomplete Digestive Systems

7.2.2.1.1.

Gastrovascular Cavity

7.2.2.1.1.1.

7.2.2.1.1.2.

7.2.2.2.

Complete Digestive Systems

7.2.2.2.1.

Alimentary Canal

7.2.2.2.1.1.

7.2.2.2.1.2.

Specialized Regions

7.2.2.2.2.

Regional Specializations

7.2.2.2.2.1.

Crop and Gizzard

7.2.2.2.2.2.

Stomach Variations

7.2.2.2.2.3.

Intestinal Modifications

7.2.2.3.

Accessory Organs

7.2.2.3.1.

Liver Functions

7.2.2.3.2.

Pancreatic Secretions

7.2.2.3.3.

Salivary Glands

7.2.3.

Adaptations for Diet

7.2.3.1.

7.2.3.1.1.

Plant Cell Wall Digestion

7.2.3.1.2.

Symbiotic Microorganisms

7.2.3.1.3.

Extended Gut Length

7.2.3.2.

7.2.3.2.1.

Protein Digestion

7.2.3.2.2.

Rapid Processing

7.2.3.2.3.

Hunting Adaptations

7.2.3.3.

7.2.3.3.1.

Dietary Flexibility

7.2.3.3.2.

Generalized Digestive System

7.2.3.4.

Specialized Dentition

7.2.3.4.1.

Tooth Types and Functions

7.2.3.4.2.

Dental Formulas

7.2.4.

Digestive Enzymes

7.2.5.

Absorption Mechanisms

7.3.

Circulation and Gas Exchange

7.3.1.

Circulatory Systems

7.3.1.1.

Open Circulatory Systems

7.3.1.1.1.

Hemolymph Circulation

7.3.1.1.2.

Body Cavity Bathing

7.3.1.1.3.

Arthropod Examples

7.3.1.2.

Closed Circulatory Systems

7.3.1.2.1.

Blood Vessel Networks

7.3.1.2.2.

Efficient Transport

7.3.1.2.3.

Vertebrate Systems

7.3.1.3.

Heart Structure and Function

7.3.1.3.1.

Chamber Organization

7.3.1.3.2.

Pumping Mechanisms

7.3.1.3.3.

7.3.1.3.4.

Heart Rate Regulation

7.3.2.

Respiratory Systems

7.3.2.1.

7.3.2.1.1.

Aquatic Gas Exchange

7.3.2.1.2.

Countercurrent Flow

7.3.2.1.3.

Surface Area Maximization

7.3.2.2.

Tracheal Systems

7.3.2.2.1.

Direct Oxygen Delivery

7.3.2.2.2.

Spiracle Openings

7.3.2.2.3.

Insect Respiration

7.3.2.3.

7.3.2.3.1.

Air-Breathing Adaptations

7.3.2.3.2.

Alveolar Structure

7.3.2.3.3.

Ventilation Mechanisms

7.3.2.4.

Cutaneous Respiration

7.3.2.4.1.

Skin Gas Exchange

7.3.2.4.2.

Moisture Requirements

7.3.3.

Oxygen Transport

7.3.3.1.

Respiratory Pigments

7.3.3.2.

Hemoglobin Function

7.3.4.

Carbon Dioxide Removal

7.4.

Osmoregulation and Excretion

7.4.1.

Water and Salt Balance

7.4.1.1.

7.4.1.1.1.

Environmental Matching

7.4.1.1.2.

Marine Adaptations

7.4.1.2.

7.4.1.2.1.

Active Regulation

7.4.1.2.2.

Freshwater and Terrestrial Forms

7.4.2.

Excretory Systems

7.4.2.1.

7.4.2.1.1.

Flame Cell Systems

7.4.2.1.2.

Flatworm Examples

7.4.2.2.

7.4.2.2.1.

Segmented Worm Systems

7.4.2.2.2.

Filtration and Reabsorption

7.4.2.3.

Malpighian Tubules

7.4.2.3.1.

Insect Excretion

7.4.2.3.2.

Dry Waste Production

7.4.2.4.

7.4.2.4.1.

Vertebrate Excretion

7.4.2.4.2.

Nephron Structure

7.4.2.4.3.

Filtration Mechanisms

7.4.3.

Nitrogenous Waste Products

7.4.3.1.

7.4.3.1.1.

7.4.3.1.2.

Aquatic Environments

7.4.3.2.

7.4.3.2.1.

Moderate Toxicity

7.4.3.2.2.

Mammalian Systems

7.4.3.3.

7.4.3.3.1.

7.4.3.3.2.

Water Conservation

7.4.4.

Hormonal Regulation

7.5.

Nervous System and Sensory Organs

7.5.1.

Neuron Structure and Function

7.5.1.1.

Cell Body Components

7.5.1.2.

Dendrite Organization

7.5.1.3.

Axon Properties

7.5.1.4.

7.5.2.

7.5.2.1.

Resting Potential

7.5.2.2.

Action Potential

7.5.2.3.

Propagation Mechanisms

7.5.2.4.

Refractory Periods

7.5.3.

Synaptic Transmission

7.5.3.1.

Chemical Synapses

7.5.3.2.

Neurotransmitters

7.5.3.3.

Signal Integration

7.5.3.4.

Electrical Synapses

7.5.4.

Organization of Nervous Systems

7.5.4.1.

7.5.4.1.1.

Cnidarian Systems

7.5.4.1.2.

Distributed Processing

7.5.4.2.

Centralized Nervous Systems

7.5.4.2.1.

Brain Development

7.5.4.2.2.

Spinal Cord Organization

7.5.4.3.

Peripheral Nervous System

7.5.4.3.1.

Sensory Pathways

7.5.4.3.2.

7.5.4.3.3.

Autonomic Functions

7.5.5.

The Vertebrate Brain

7.5.5.1.

Major Brain Regions

7.5.5.1.1.

7.5.5.1.2.

7.5.5.1.3.

7.5.5.2.

Sensory and Motor Integration

7.5.5.2.1.

Cerebral Cortex

7.5.5.2.2.

7.5.5.2.3.

7.5.6.

Sensory Reception

7.5.6.1.

7.5.6.1.1.

7.5.6.1.1.1.

7.5.6.1.1.2.

Chemical Detection

7.5.6.1.2.

7.5.6.1.2.1.

Olfactory Receptors

7.5.6.1.2.2.

Pheromone Detection

7.5.6.2.

Mechanoreception

7.5.6.2.1.

7.5.6.2.1.1.

Pressure Receptors

7.5.6.2.1.2.

Texture Detection

7.5.6.2.2.

7.5.6.2.2.1.

Sound Wave Detection

7.5.6.2.2.2.

7.5.6.2.3.

7.5.6.2.3.1.

Vestibular System

7.5.6.2.3.2.

Equilibrium Maintenance

7.5.6.3.

7.5.6.3.1.

Simple Eyespots

7.5.6.3.1.1.

Light Detection

7.5.6.3.1.2.

Directional Sensing

7.5.6.3.2.

7.5.6.3.2.1.

Arthropod Vision

7.5.6.3.2.2.

Motion Detection

7.5.6.3.3.

Camera-Type Eyes

7.5.6.3.3.1.

Vertebrate Vision

7.5.6.3.3.2.

Image Formation

7.5.6.4.

Electroreception

7.5.6.5.

Magnetoreception

7.6.

Endocrine System and Chemical Regulation

7.6.1.

Hormones and their Actions

7.6.1.1.

Chemical Messengers

7.6.1.2.

Target Cell Recognition

7.6.1.3.

Feedback Mechanisms

7.6.2.

Invertebrate Hormones

7.6.2.1.

Molting Hormones

7.6.2.2.

Juvenile Hormones

7.6.2.3.

Reproductive Hormones

7.6.3.

The Vertebrate Endocrine System

7.6.3.1.

7.6.3.1.1.

Pituitary Gland

7.6.3.1.2.

7.6.3.1.3.

7.6.3.1.4.

7.6.3.1.5.

7.6.3.2.

Hormonal Regulation of Physiology

7.6.3.2.1.

Growth Regulation

7.6.3.2.2.

Metabolism Control

7.6.3.2.3.

Reproductive Cycles

7.6.3.2.4.

Stress Responses

7.7.

The Immune System

7.7.1.

Innate Immunity

7.7.1.1.

Physical Barriers

7.7.1.1.1.

Skin Protection

7.7.1.1.2.

Mucous Membranes

7.7.1.2.

Cellular Defenses

7.7.1.2.1.

7.7.1.2.2.

Natural Killer Cells

7.7.1.2.3.

Inflammatory Responses

7.7.2.

Adaptive Immunity

7.7.2.1.

7.7.2.1.1.

B Cell Production

7.7.2.1.2.

Antigen Recognition

7.7.2.2.

7.7.2.2.1.

T Cell Functions

7.7.2.2.2.

7.7.2.3.

7.8.

Thermoregulation

7.8.1.

7.8.1.1.

Environmental Temperature Dependence

7.8.1.2.

Behavioral Thermoregulation

7.8.2.

7.8.2.1.

Internal Heat Production

7.8.2.2.

Metabolic Heat Generation

7.8.3.

Behavioral Adaptations

7.8.3.1.

Basking Behaviors

7.8.3.2.

Shelter Seeking

7.8.3.3.

Migration Patterns

7.8.4.

Physiological Adaptations

7.8.4.1.

Insulation Mechanisms

7.8.4.2.

Vascular Adjustments

7.8.4.3.

Metabolic Adjustments

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6. Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Vertebrates (Phylum Chordata)

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