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Biology
Paleontology
Vertebrate Paleontology
1. Foundations of Vertebrate Paleontology
2. The Fossil Record and Geological Time
3. Field and Laboratory Methods
4. Vertebrate Anatomy and Systematics
5. Early Vertebrate Evolution
6. Gnathostome Origins and Early Jawed Fishes
7. Osteichthyan Diversification
8. The Water-to-Land Transition
9. Amphibian Evolution
10. Amniote Origins and Early Evolution
11. Synapsid Evolution and Mammalian Origins
12. Sauropsid Radiation
13. Mesozoic Marine Reptiles
14. Lepidosauromorph Evolution
15. Archosauromorph Dominance
16. Crocodylomorph Evolution
17. Pterosaur Evolution and Flight
18. Dinosaur Origins and Early Evolution
19. Sauropodomorph Evolution
20. Theropod Evolution and Diversity
21. Ornithischian Diversity
22. Avian Origins and Early Evolution
23. Cenozoic Mammalian Radiation
24. Primate and Human Evolution
25. Macroevolutionary Patterns and Processes
8.
The Water-to-Land Transition
8.1.
Environmental Context
8.1.1.
Late Devonian Ecosystems
8.1.2.
Freshwater Environments
8.1.3.
Terrestrial Opportunities
8.1.4.
Climate Conditions
8.2.
Physiological Challenges
8.2.1.
Gravitational Support
8.2.1.1.
Axial Skeleton Strengthening
8.2.1.2.
Limb Bone Robusticity
8.2.1.3.
Joint Modifications
8.2.2.
Aerial Respiration
8.2.2.1.
Lung Development
8.2.2.2.
Gill Reduction
8.2.2.3.
Respiratory Pumping
8.2.3.
Water Balance
8.2.3.1.
Kidney Modifications
8.2.3.2.
Skin Adaptations
8.2.3.3.
Behavioral Strategies
8.2.4.
Sensory Adaptations
8.2.4.1.
Vision in Air
8.2.4.2.
Hearing Mechanisms
8.2.4.3.
Lateral Line Modifications
8.2.5.
Reproductive Challenges
8.2.5.1.
Egg Protection
8.2.5.2.
Fertilization Methods
8.2.5.3.
Larval Development
8.3.
Key Transitional Forms
8.3.1.
Panderichthys
8.3.1.1.
Skull Flattening
8.3.1.2.
Fin Structure
8.3.1.3.
Ecological Niche
8.3.2.
Tiktaalik
8.3.2.1.
Intermediate Features
8.3.2.2.
Limb-like Fins
8.3.2.3.
Neck Mobility
8.3.3.
Acanthostega
8.3.3.1.
Eight Digits
8.3.3.2.
Aquatic Adaptations
8.3.3.3.
Gill Retention
8.3.4.
Ichthyostega
8.3.4.1.
Terrestrial Features
8.3.4.2.
Limb Proportions
8.3.4.3.
Vertebral Structure
8.3.5.
Tulerpeton
8.3.5.1.
Six Digits
8.3.5.2.
Limb Orientation
8.4.
Early Tetrapod Radiation
8.4.1.
Devonian Tetrapods
8.4.1.1.
Ventastega
8.4.1.2.
Metaxygnathus
8.4.1.3.
Elginerpeton
8.4.2.
Carboniferous Expansion
8.4.2.1.
Temnospondyli
8.4.2.2.
Lepospondyli
8.4.2.3.
Anthracosauria
8.4.3.
Ecological Diversification
8.4.3.1.
Aquatic Forms
8.4.3.2.
Semi-terrestrial Forms
8.4.3.3.
Terrestrial Adaptations
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7. Osteichthyan Diversification
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9. Amphibian Evolution