Spectroscopy

  1. General Spectroscopic Instrumentation and Concepts
    1. Components of a Spectrometer
      1. Radiation Source
        1. Continuous Sources
          1. Tungsten Lamps
            1. Deuterium Lamps
              1. Xenon Arc Lamps
              2. Line Sources
                1. Hollow Cathode Lamps
                  1. Gas Discharge Lamps
                  2. Laser Sources
                    1. Coherent Radiation
                      1. Monochromatic Output
                      2. Source Stability
                        1. Power Fluctuations
                          1. Wavelength Drift
                        2. Wavelength Selector
                          1. Filters
                            1. Absorption Filters
                              1. Interference Filters
                                1. Bandpass Characteristics
                                2. Monochromators
                                  1. Prisms
                                    1. Dispersion Principle
                                      1. Material Properties
                                      2. Gratings
                                        1. Diffraction Principle
                                          1. Blazed Gratings
                                            1. Holographic Gratings
                                            2. Resolution and Dispersion
                                          2. Sample Holder
                                            1. Cuvettes
                                              1. Quartz Cuvettes
                                                1. Glass Cuvettes
                                                  1. Plastic Cuvettes
                                                    1. Path Length Considerations
                                                    2. Gas Cells
                                                      1. Variable Path Length Cells
                                                        1. High-Pressure Cells
                                                        2. Liquid Cells
                                                          1. Flow Cells
                                                            1. Temperature-Controlled Cells
                                                            2. Solid Sample Holders
                                                              1. Transmission Holders
                                                                1. Reflection Holders
                                                              2. Detector
                                                                1. Photomultiplier Tubes
                                                                  1. Photocathode Materials
                                                                    1. Dynode Chain
                                                                      1. Dark Current
                                                                      2. Photodiodes
                                                                        1. Silicon Photodiodes
                                                                          1. InGaAs Photodiodes
                                                                            1. Response Characteristics
                                                                            2. Charge-Coupled Devices
                                                                              1. Array Detectors
                                                                                1. Quantum Efficiency
                                                                                2. Thermal Detectors
                                                                                  1. Bolometers
                                                                                    1. Pyroelectric Detectors
                                                                                  2. Signal Processing
                                                                                    1. Amplification
                                                                                      1. Low-Noise Amplifiers
                                                                                        1. Lock-in Amplifiers
                                                                                        2. Analog-to-Digital Conversion
                                                                                          1. Resolution
                                                                                            1. Sampling Rate
                                                                                            2. Data Display and Storage
                                                                                              1. Real-Time Display
                                                                                                1. Data Logging
                                                                                            3. Key Performance Metrics
                                                                                              1. Spectral Resolution
                                                                                                1. Factors Affecting Resolution
                                                                                                  1. Slit Width
                                                                                                    1. Grating Characteristics
                                                                                                      1. Optical Design
                                                                                                    2. Signal-to-Noise Ratio
                                                                                                      1. Sources of Noise
                                                                                                        1. Shot Noise
                                                                                                          1. Thermal Noise
                                                                                                            1. Flicker Noise
                                                                                                            2. Methods to Improve Signal-to-Noise Ratio
                                                                                                              1. Signal Averaging
                                                                                                                1. Modulation Techniques
                                                                                                                  1. Cooling Detectors
                                                                                                                2. Sensitivity and Detection Limit
                                                                                                                  1. Sensitivity Definition
                                                                                                                    1. Detection Limit Definition
                                                                                                                      1. Limit of Quantification
                                                                                                                        1. Factors Affecting Sensitivity
                                                                                                                          1. Source Intensity
                                                                                                                            1. Detector Efficiency
                                                                                                                              1. Optical Throughput
                                                                                                                          2. Spectral Representation
                                                                                                                            1. Types of Spectra
                                                                                                                              1. Absorption Spectrum
                                                                                                                                1. Emission Spectrum
                                                                                                                                  1. Excitation Spectrum
                                                                                                                                    1. Action Spectrum
                                                                                                                                    2. Transmittance and Absorbance
                                                                                                                                      1. Transmittance Definition
                                                                                                                                        1. Absorbance Definition
                                                                                                                                          1. Relationship Between Transmittance and Absorbance
                                                                                                                                          2. Beer-Lambert Law
                                                                                                                                            1. Mathematical Formulation
                                                                                                                                              1. Molar Absorptivity
                                                                                                                                                1. Path Length Dependence
                                                                                                                                                  1. Concentration Dependence
                                                                                                                                                    1. Limitations and Deviations
                                                                                                                                                      1. Chemical Deviations
                                                                                                                                                        1. Instrumental Deviations
                                                                                                                                                          1. Stray Light Effects
                                                                                                                                                        2. Linewidth and Broadening Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                          1. Natural Broadening
                                                                                                                                                            1. Lifetime Broadening
                                                                                                                                                              1. Uncertainty Principle
                                                                                                                                                              2. Doppler Broadening
                                                                                                                                                                1. Temperature Dependence
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Molecular Mass Dependence
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Pressure Broadening
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Collision Frequency
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Lorentzian Line Shape
                                                                                                                                                                      2. Instrumental Broadening
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Slit Function
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Convolution Effects

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                                                                                                                                                                    1. Fundamentals of Spectroscopy

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                                                                                                                                                                    3. Atomic Spectroscopy