Mammalogy

  1. Form and Function
    1. Integumentary System
      1. Skin Structure
        1. Epidermis
          1. Dermis
            1. Hypodermis
            2. Hair and Fur
              1. Structure and Growth
                1. Hair Follicle Anatomy
                  1. Growth Cycles
                  2. Types of Hair
                    1. Guard Hairs
                      1. Underfur
                        1. Vibrissae
                          1. Specialized Hairs
                          2. Coloration and Camouflage
                            1. Pigmentation
                              1. Seasonal Color Change
                                1. Disruptive Coloration
                              2. Glands
                                1. Mammary Glands
                                  1. Structure and Function
                                    1. Variation among Mammals
                                    2. Sweat Glands
                                      1. Eccrine Glands
                                        1. Apocrine Glands
                                        2. Sebaceous Glands
                                          1. Function and Distribution
                                          2. Scent Glands
                                            1. Types and Locations
                                              1. Roles in Communication
                                            2. Specialized Epidermal Structures
                                              1. Claws
                                                1. Nails
                                                  1. Hooves
                                                    1. Horns
                                                      1. True Horns
                                                        1. Pronghorns
                                                        2. Antlers
                                                          1. Baleen
                                                            1. Scales and Armor
                                                              1. Armadillo Armor
                                                                1. Pangolin Scales
                                                            2. Skeletal System
                                                              1. The Mammalian Skull
                                                                1. Cranial Morphology
                                                                  1. Braincase
                                                                    1. Zygomatic Arch
                                                                      1. Sagittal Crest
                                                                      2. Dentition
                                                                        1. Dental Formula
                                                                          1. Tooth Types
                                                                            1. Incisors
                                                                              1. Canines
                                                                                1. Premolars
                                                                                  1. Molars
                                                                                  2. Adaptations for Diet
                                                                                    1. Carnassials
                                                                                      1. Hypsodonty
                                                                                        1. Bunodonty
                                                                                          1. Lophodonty
                                                                                            1. Selenodonty
                                                                                        2. The Axial Skeleton
                                                                                          1. Vertebral Column
                                                                                            1. Cervical Vertebrae
                                                                                              1. Thoracic Vertebrae
                                                                                                1. Lumbar Vertebrae
                                                                                                  1. Sacral Vertebrae
                                                                                                    1. Caudal Vertebrae
                                                                                                    2. Ribs
                                                                                                      1. Sternum
                                                                                                      2. The Appendicular Skeleton
                                                                                                        1. Pectoral Girdle
                                                                                                          1. Scapula
                                                                                                            1. Clavicle
                                                                                                            2. Pelvic Girdle
                                                                                                              1. Ilium
                                                                                                                1. Ischium
                                                                                                                  1. Pubis
                                                                                                                  2. Forelimbs
                                                                                                                    1. Humerus
                                                                                                                      1. Radius and Ulna
                                                                                                                        1. Carpals
                                                                                                                          1. Metacarpals
                                                                                                                            1. Phalanges
                                                                                                                            2. Hindlimbs
                                                                                                                              1. Femur
                                                                                                                                1. Tibia and Fibula
                                                                                                                                  1. Tarsals
                                                                                                                                    1. Metatarsals
                                                                                                                                      1. Phalanges
                                                                                                                                    2. Adaptations for Locomotion
                                                                                                                                      1. Cursorial Adaptations
                                                                                                                                        1. Limb Elongation
                                                                                                                                          1. Digitigrade and Unguligrade Stance
                                                                                                                                            1. Reduction of Digits
                                                                                                                                            2. Fossorial Adaptations
                                                                                                                                              1. Robust Limbs
                                                                                                                                                1. Enlarged Claws
                                                                                                                                                  1. Reinforced Skull
                                                                                                                                                  2. Arboreal Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                    1. Prehensile Tails
                                                                                                                                                      1. Opposable Digits
                                                                                                                                                        1. Flexible Joints
                                                                                                                                                        2. Aquatic Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                          1. Flippers
                                                                                                                                                            1. Streamlined Bodies
                                                                                                                                                              1. Reduced Hindlimbs
                                                                                                                                                              2. Aerial Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                1. Wing Membranes
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Skeletal Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Lightweight Bones
                                                                                                                                                                2. Muscular System
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Major Muscle Groups
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Axial Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Epaxial Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Hypaxial Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                        2. Appendicular Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Extrinsic Limb Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Intrinsic Limb Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Musculature for Locomotion
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Limb Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Trunk Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Musculature for Mastication
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Temporalis
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Masseter
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pterygoid Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Musculature for Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Diaphragm
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Intercostal Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Accessory Respiratory Muscles
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Nervous System and Special Senses
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Brain Structure and Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Major Brain Regions
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cerebrum
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Cerebellum
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Brainstem
                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Encephalization Quotient
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Neocortex Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Spinal Cord and Peripheral Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Spinal Cord Organization
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Cranial Nerves
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Autonomic Nervous System
                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Eye Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cornea
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Lens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Retina
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Color Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Photoreceptor Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Dichromatic vs Trichromatic Vision
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Nocturnal Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Tapetum Lucidum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Large Eyes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Rod-Dominated Retina
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Olfaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Olfactory Epithelium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Olfactory Bulb
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Vomeronasal Organ
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Flehmen Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Audition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Ear Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Outer Ear
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Middle Ear
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Inner Ear
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Range of Hearing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Frequency Sensitivity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Ultrasonic Hearing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Echolocation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Taxa Using Echolocation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Biosonar Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Gustation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Taste Buds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Taste Modalities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sweet
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Sour
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Salty
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Bitter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Umami
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Somatosensation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Mechanoreceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Thermoreceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Nociceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Proprioceptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. The Four-Chambered Heart
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Structure and Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Atria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Ventricles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Heart Valves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Cardiac Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Systole
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Diastole
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Blood and Circulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Blood Components
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Red Blood Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. White Blood Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Platelets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Plasma
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Oxygen Transport
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Hemoglobin Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Circulatory Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Pulmonary Circulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Systemic Circulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Lungs and Diaphragmatic Breathing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Lung Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Alveoli
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Bronchi and Bronchioles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pleural Membranes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Diaphragm Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Inspiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Expiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Gas Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Diffusion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ventilation-Perfusion Matching
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Adaptations for Diving
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Oxygen Storage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Increased Blood Volume
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Myoglobin Concentration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Bradycardia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Blood Shunting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Diving Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Digestive System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Feeding Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Prehension
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Lips and Tongue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Specialized Feeding Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Mastication
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Jaw Mechanics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Chewing Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Swallowing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pharyngeal Phase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Esophageal Phase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Digestive Tract Morphology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Oral Cavity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Teeth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Tongue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Salivary Glands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Esophagus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Stomach Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Simple Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Compound Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Ruminant Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Small Intestine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Duodenum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Jejunum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Ileum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Large Intestine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cecum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Colon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Rectum
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Accessory Organs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Liver
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Pancreas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Gallbladder
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Adaptations for Different Diets
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Insectivory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Dentition Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Digestive Enzymes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Gut Morphology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Carnivory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Short Digestive Tract
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Specialized Stomach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Carnassial Teeth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Herbivory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Foregut Fermentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Hindgut Fermentation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Ruminant vs Non-Ruminant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cellulose Digestion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Omnivory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Flexible Diet
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Mixed Dentition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Intermediate Gut Length
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Urogenital System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Excretory System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Kidney Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Medulla
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Nephrons
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Nephron Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Reabsorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Secretion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Water Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Concentrating Urine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Loop of Henle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Osmoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Salt Balance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hormonal Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Reproductive System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Male Reproductive Anatomy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Testes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Epididymis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Vas Deferens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Penis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Accessory Glands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Female Reproductive Anatomy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Ovaries
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Oviducts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Uterus Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Duplex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Bipartite
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Bicornuate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Simplex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Vagina
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Placenta Types
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Epitheliochorial
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Endotheliochorial
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hemochorial
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Endocrine System
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Major Endocrine Glands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Pituitary Gland
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Anterior Pituitary
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Posterior Pituitary
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Thyroid Gland
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Parathyroid Glands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Adrenal Glands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Adrenal Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Adrenal Medulla
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Pancreas
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Islets of Langerhans
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Gonads
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Testes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Ovaries
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Pineal Gland
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Hormonal Control of Physiological Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Growth and Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Growth Hormone
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Thyroid Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Metabolism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Insulin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Glucagon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Thyroid Hormones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Reproduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Gonadotropins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Sex Steroids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Stress Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Cortisol
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Epinephrine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Thermoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Endothermy and Homeothermy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Definition and Advantages
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Metabolic Heat Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Mechanisms for Heat Production
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Shivering Thermogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Non-Shivering Thermogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Brown Adipose Tissue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Metabolic Heat
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Mechanisms for Heat Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Insulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Fur and Fat
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Seasonal Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Behavioral Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Huddling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Shelter Seeking
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Countercurrent Heat Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Extremity Warming
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Vascular Arrangements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Mechanisms for Heat Dissipation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sweating
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Eccrine Sweating
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Evaporative Cooling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Panting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Respiratory Heat Loss
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Behavioral Thermoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Vasodilation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Peripheral Blood Flow
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Heat Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Torpor and Hibernation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Daily Torpor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Energy Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Arousal Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Seasonal Hibernation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Physiological Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Preparation and Arousal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Estivation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Arid Environment Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Water Conservation

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                4. Reproduction and Life History