Macroeconomics of Climate Change

6.

Fiscal Policy for Climate Mitigation and Adaptation

6.1.

Carbon Pricing Mechanisms

6.1.1.

6.1.1.1.

Design and Implementation

6.1.1.1.1.

Tax Base and Rate Setting

6.1.1.1.2.

Coverage and Exemptions

6.1.1.1.3.

Administrative Considerations

6.1.1.2.

Revenue Recycling Options

6.1.1.2.1.

Lump-sum Rebates

6.1.1.2.2.

Reducing Other Distortionary Taxes

6.1.1.2.3.

Green Investment Funding

6.1.1.3.

Political Economy Considerations

6.1.1.3.1.

Public Acceptance

6.1.1.3.2.

Interest Group Politics

6.1.1.3.3.

Policy Durability

6.1.2.

Emissions Trading Systems

6.1.2.1.

Cap-and-Trade Principles

6.1.2.1.1.

6.1.2.1.2.

Market Mechanisms

6.1.2.1.3.

Banking and Borrowing

6.1.2.2.

Allocation of Permits

6.1.2.2.1.

Free Allocation

6.1.2.2.2.

6.1.2.2.3.

Output-Based Allocation

6.1.2.3.

Price Volatility and Stability Mechanisms

6.1.2.3.1.

Price Floors and Ceilings

6.1.2.3.2.

Market Stability Reserves

6.1.2.3.3.

Cost Containment Reserves

6.1.2.4.

Linking ETS Systems

6.1.2.4.1.

Benefits and Challenges

6.1.2.4.2.

Design Compatibility

6.1.2.4.3.

Sovereignty Concerns

6.2.

Green Public Investment

6.2.1.

Renewable Energy Infrastructure

6.2.1.1.

Solar and Wind Projects

6.2.1.2.

Grid Modernization

6.2.1.3.

Energy Storage Systems

6.2.2.

Public Transportation Systems

6.2.2.1.

Electrification of Transit

6.2.2.2.

Expansion of Rail and Bus Networks

6.2.2.3.

Active Transportation Infrastructure

6.2.3.

Energy Efficiency in Public Buildings

6.2.3.1.

Retrofitting and Upgrades

6.2.3.2.

Building Codes and Standards

6.2.3.3.

Performance Contracting

6.2.4.

Research and Development for Green Technologies

6.2.4.1.

Funding Mechanisms

6.2.4.2.

Public-Private Partnerships

6.2.4.3.

Technology Transfer

6.2.5.

Natural Climate Solutions

6.2.5.1.

Reforestation and Afforestation

6.2.5.2.

Wetland Restoration

6.2.5.3.

Soil Carbon Sequestration

6.3.

Subsidies and Tax Incentives

6.3.1.

Reforming Fossil Fuel Subsidies

6.3.1.1.

Phasing Out Direct Subsidies

6.3.1.2.

Addressing Social Impacts

6.3.1.3.

International Coordination

6.3.2.

Incentives for Green Innovation and Adoption

6.3.2.1.

Tax Credits for Clean Energy

6.3.2.2.

Grants and Low-Interest Loans

6.3.2.3.

Accelerated Depreciation

6.4.

Distributional Consequences of Climate Policies

6.4.1.

Regressive vs. Progressive Impacts

6.4.1.1.

Effects on Low-Income Households

6.4.1.2.

Regional Disparities

6.4.1.3.

Rural vs. Urban Differences

6.4.2.

Effects on Households and Firms

6.4.2.1.

Cost Pass-Through

6.4.2.2.

Competitiveness Concerns

6.4.2.3.

Innovation Incentives

6.4.3.

Just Transition Policies

6.4.3.1.

Worker Retraining Programs

6.4.3.2.

Social Safety Nets

6.4.3.3.

Community Development Support

6.5.

Fiscal Frameworks for Adaptation

6.5.1.

Budgeting for Climate Resilience

6.5.1.1.

Long-term Planning

6.5.1.2.

Contingency Funds

6.5.1.3.

Risk-Based Budgeting

6.5.2.

Public Infrastructure Hardening

6.5.2.1.

6.5.2.2.

Resilient Energy Systems

6.5.2.3.

Climate-Proof Transportation

6.5.3.

Disaster Relief and Recovery

6.5.3.1.

Emergency Response Funding

6.5.3.2.

Insurance and Risk Pooling

6.5.3.3.

Build-Back-Better Principles

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7. Monetary Policy and Financial Regulation