Health Economics (Healthcare Economics and Innovation)

7.

Pharmaceutical Economics and Innovation

7.1.

Pharmaceutical Industry Structure

7.1.1.

Market Characteristics

7.1.1.1.

Research-Based Companies

7.1.1.2.

Generic Manufacturers

7.1.1.3.

Biotechnology Firms

7.1.2.

Drug Development Process

7.1.2.1.

Discovery and Preclinical Research

7.1.2.2.

Clinical Trial Phases

7.1.2.2.1.

Phase I Safety Studies

7.1.2.2.2.

Phase II Efficacy Studies

7.1.2.2.3.

Phase III Comparative Studies

7.1.2.2.4.

Phase IV Post-Market Surveillance

7.1.2.3.

Regulatory Approval Process

7.1.2.4.

Time and Cost of Development

7.2.

Intellectual Property and Innovation

7.2.1.

7.2.1.1.

Patent Protection Periods

7.2.1.2.

Patent Cliff Effects

7.2.1.3.

Evergreening Strategies

7.2.2.

Innovation Incentives

7.2.2.1.

Expected Returns to R&D

7.2.2.2.

Risk and Uncertainty

7.2.2.3.

Public vs. Private R&D

7.2.3.

Orphan Drug Policies

7.2.3.1.

Market Exclusivity

7.2.3.2.

7.2.3.3.

Research Grants

7.3.

Pharmaceutical Pricing

7.3.1.

Pricing Strategies

7.3.1.1.

Value-Based Pricing

7.3.1.2.

Cost-Plus Pricing

7.3.1.3.

Reference Pricing

7.3.1.4.

Differential Pricing

7.3.2.

Price Regulation

7.3.2.1.

Direct Price Controls

7.3.2.2.

Profit Controls

7.3.2.3.

Reimbursement Limits

7.3.3.

International Price Comparisons

7.3.3.1.

7.3.3.2.

Price Discrimination

7.4.

Generic Drug Markets

7.4.1.

Generic Competition

7.4.1.1.

Bioequivalence Standards

7.4.1.2.

Market Entry Timing

7.4.1.3.

Price Competition

7.4.2.

Generic Substitution Policies

7.4.2.1.

Mandatory Substitution

7.4.2.2.

Incentive Structures

7.4.3.

Biosimilar Markets

7.4.3.1.

Regulatory Pathways

7.4.3.2.

7.5.

Medical Device Innovation

7.5.1.

Device Development Process

7.5.2.

Regulatory Approval

7.5.2.1.

FDA Device Classifications

7.5.2.2.

CE Marking in Europe

7.5.3.

Innovation Incentives

7.5.4.

Diffusion and Adoption

7.5.4.1.

Hospital Technology Adoption

7.5.4.2.

Physician Adoption Patterns

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