Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of landforms and the processes that create and shape them. As a core sub-discipline of physical geography, it investigates how the Earth's surface is built up by internal (endogenic) forces like tectonic uplift and volcanism, and simultaneously sculpted and worn down by external (exogenic) agents such as water, wind, and ice through processes of weathering, erosion, and deposition. By analyzing these dynamic interactions, geomorphology explains the history, form, and future of landscapes, from the grand scale of mountain ranges to the intricate details of a river delta.

1. Foundations of Geomorphology
   1. Defining Geomorphology
      1. Scope and Interdisciplinary Nature
         1. Relationship with Geology
         2. Relationship with Physical Geography
         3. Relationship with Ecology
         4. Relationship with Hydrology
         5. Relationship with Climatology
         6. Relationship with Soil Science
      2. Core Concepts
         1. Uniformitarianism
         2. Catastrophism
         3. Geomorphic Systems
            1. Open Systems
            2. Closed Systems
            3. System Inputs
            4. System Outputs
            5. System Feedbacks
               1. Positive Feedback
               2. Negative Feedback
         4. Equilibrium and Thresholds
            1. Static Equilibrium
            2. Dynamic Equilibrium
            3. Metastable States
            4. Threshold Events
            5. Geomorphic Thresholds
         5. Process and Form Relationships
            1. Process-Form Interactions
            2. Process Domains
            3. Morphological Response
         6. Driving and Resisting Forces
            1. Gravity
            2. Climate Variables
            3. Lithology
            4. Geological Structure
            5. Human Activity
            6. Vegetation Cover
   2. Historical Development of Geomorphology
      1. Early Observations and Theories
         1. Ancient and Classical Views
         2. Medieval Contributions
         3. Renaissance Observations
      2. Foundational Figures
         1. James Hutton
            1. Theory of Uniformitarianism
            2. Deep Time Concept
         2. Charles Lyell
            1. Principles of Geology
            2. Actualism
         3. Grove Karl Gilbert
            1. Graded Rivers
            2. Dynamic Equilibrium
            3. Quantitative Approach
         4. William Morris Davis
            1. Cycle of Erosion
            2. Geographical Cycle
         5. Walther Penck
            1. Slope Development Theory
            2. Parallel Retreat
         6. Lester Charles King
            1. Pediplanation Theory
            2. Scarp Retreat
      3. Modern Developments
         1. Quantitative Revolution
            1. Introduction of Measurement
            2. Statistical Analysis
            3. Process-Based Approaches
         2. Development of Geomorphic Models
         3. Systems Approach
         4. Computational Geomorphology
   3. Scale in Geomorphology
      1. Spatial Scales
         1. Microscale Processes
            1. Sediment Grains
            2. Soil Aggregates
            3. Rock Surface Features
         2. Mesoscale Features
            1. Hillslopes
            2. River Reaches
            3. Dune Fields
            4. Valley Segments
         3. Macroscale Landforms
            1. Mountain Ranges
            2. River Basins
            3. Glacial Systems
            4. Coastal Systems
         4. Megascale Features
            1. Continental Shields
            2. Ocean Basins
            3. Tectonic Provinces
      2. Temporal Scales
         1. Event Time
            1. Catastrophic Events
            2. Storm Events
         2. Steady Time
            1. Short-Term Process-Response
            2. Seasonal Variations
         3. Graded Time
            1. Intermediate System Adjustments
            2. Decadal to Centennial Changes
         4. Cyclic Time
            1. Long-Term Landscape Evolution
            2. Geological Time Scales
   4. Earth Materials and Properties
      1. Minerals and Rock Types
         1. Igneous Rocks
            1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks
            2. Extrusive Igneous Rocks
            3. Volcanic Glass
         2. Sedimentary Rocks
            1. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
            2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
            3. Organic Sedimentary Rocks
            4. Sedimentary Structures
         3. Metamorphic Rocks
            1. Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
            2. Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
            3. Metamorphic Grade
      2. Rock Cycle Processes
         1. Weathering and Erosion
         2. Transportation
         3. Sedimentation
         4. Lithification
         5. Metamorphism
         6. Melting and Crystallization
      3. Rock Properties Affecting Geomorphology
         1. Hardness and Resistance
         2. Jointing and Fracturing
         3. Porosity and Permeability
         4. Chemical Composition
         5. Structural Orientation
      4. Regolith and Soil
         1. Regolith Formation
         2. Regolith Types
         3. Soil Formation Processes
            1. Parent Material Influence
            2. Climate Factors
            3. Biological Activity
            4. Topographic Effects
            5. Time Factors
         4. Soil Profile Development
            1. O Horizon
            2. A Horizon
            3. E Horizon
            4. B Horizon
            5. C Horizon
            6. R Horizon
         5. Soil Physical Properties
            1. Texture
            2. Structure
            3. Porosity
            4. Permeability
            5. Bulk Density
         6. Soil Chemical Properties
            1. pH Levels
            2. Nutrient Content
            3. Cation Exchange Capacity
            4. Organic Matter Content