Environmental Chemistry

4.

Chemistry of the Hydrosphere

4.1.

Properties of Water

4.1.1.

Physical Properties

4.1.1.1.

4.1.1.2.

High Specific Heat

4.1.1.3.

Density Anomalies

4.1.1.4.

Surface Tension

4.1.2.

Chemical Properties

4.1.2.1.

Hydrogen Bonding

4.1.2.2.

Solvent Properties

4.1.2.3.

4.1.3.

Water Structure

4.1.3.1.

Molecular Geometry

4.1.3.2.

Intermolecular Forces

4.2.

Chemistry of Natural Waters

4.2.1.

Dissolved Gases

4.2.1.1.

Dissolved Oxygen

4.2.1.1.1.

Solubility Factors

4.2.1.1.2.

Sources and Sinks

4.2.1.1.3.

Measurement Methods

4.2.1.2.

4.2.1.2.1.

Dissolution Equilibria

4.2.1.2.2.

Carbonic Acid Formation

4.2.1.2.3.

4.2.2.

Acid-Base Chemistry

4.2.2.1.

pH in Natural Waters

4.2.2.1.1.

Measurement Techniques

4.2.2.1.2.

Factors Affecting pH

4.2.2.2.

Carbonate Buffer System

4.2.2.2.1.

Carbonic Acid Equilibria

4.2.2.2.2.

Buffering Capacity

4.2.2.2.3.

4.2.3.

Major Dissolved Species

4.2.3.1.

4.2.3.1.1.

4.2.3.1.2.

4.2.3.1.3.

4.2.3.1.4.

4.2.3.2.

4.2.3.2.1.

4.2.3.2.2.

4.2.3.2.3.

4.2.3.2.4.

4.2.4.

4.2.4.1.

Calcium and Magnesium Content

4.2.4.2.

Measurement Methods

4.2.4.3.

Environmental Implications

4.2.4.4.

Treatment Methods

4.2.5.

Redox Chemistry

4.2.5.1.

Redox Potential

4.2.5.1.1.

Measurement and Interpretation

4.2.5.1.2.

Environmental Significance

4.2.5.2.

Electron Activity

4.2.5.2.1.

4.2.5.2.2.

4.2.5.3.

Redox Reactions

4.2.5.3.1.

Metal Speciation

4.2.5.3.2.

Organic Matter Decomposition

4.3.

Water Pollution

4.3.1.

Pollution Sources

4.3.1.1.

4.3.1.1.1.

Industrial Discharges

4.3.1.1.2.

Municipal Wastewater

4.3.1.1.3.

Combined Sewer Overflows

4.3.1.2.

Non-point Sources

4.3.1.2.1.

Agricultural Runoff

4.3.1.2.2.

Urban Stormwater

4.3.1.2.3.

Atmospheric Deposition

4.3.2.

Classes of Water Pollutants

4.3.2.1.

Oxygen-Demanding Wastes

4.3.2.1.1.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

4.3.2.1.2.

Chemical Oxygen Demand

4.3.2.1.3.

Dissolved Oxygen Depletion

4.3.2.2.

4.3.2.2.1.

4.3.2.2.2.

4.3.2.2.3.

4.3.2.2.4.

Indicator Organisms

4.3.2.3.

4.3.2.3.1.

Nitrogen Compounds

4.3.2.3.1.1.

4.3.2.3.1.2.

4.3.2.3.1.3.

4.3.2.3.1.4.

Organic Nitrogen

4.3.2.3.2.

Phosphorus Compounds

4.3.2.3.2.1.

4.3.2.3.2.2.

4.3.2.3.2.3.

Organic Phosphorus

4.3.2.3.3.

Eutrophication Processes

4.3.2.4.

Salts and Total Dissolved Solids

4.3.2.4.1.

Salinization Sources

4.3.2.4.2.

Conductivity Measurements

4.3.2.4.3.

Ecological Effects

4.3.2.5.

Thermal Pollution

4.3.2.5.1.

Power Plant Discharges

4.3.2.5.2.

Industrial Cooling Water

4.3.2.5.3.

Ecological Impacts

4.3.2.6.

4.3.2.6.1.

4.3.2.6.2.

4.3.2.6.3.

4.3.2.6.4.

4.3.2.6.5.

4.3.2.6.6.

Bioaccumulation

4.3.2.6.7.

Toxicity Mechanisms

4.3.2.7.

Organic Pollutants

4.3.2.7.1.

4.3.2.7.1.1.

Organochlorines

4.3.2.7.1.2.

Organophosphates

4.3.2.7.1.3.

4.3.2.7.1.4.

Environmental Fate

4.3.2.7.2.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls

4.3.2.7.2.1.

Sources and Uses

4.3.2.7.2.2.

Environmental Persistence

4.3.2.7.2.3.

Bioaccumulation

4.3.2.7.3.

Petroleum Hydrocarbons

4.3.2.7.3.1.

4.3.2.7.3.2.

Weathering Processes

4.3.2.7.3.3.

4.3.2.7.4.

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products

4.3.2.7.4.1.

Occurrence in Water

4.3.2.7.4.2.

Treatment Challenges

4.3.2.7.4.3.

Ecological Effects

4.3.2.8.

4.3.2.8.1.

Erosion Sources

4.3.2.8.2.

Transport Mechanisms

4.3.2.8.3.

Ecological Impacts

4.3.3.

4.3.3.1.

Nutrient Loading

4.3.3.1.1.

External Loading

4.3.3.1.2.

Internal Loading

4.3.3.1.3.

4.3.3.2.

Primary Productivity

4.3.3.2.1.

4.3.3.2.2.

Limiting Nutrients

4.3.3.2.3.

Seasonal Patterns

4.3.3.3.

Oxygen Depletion

4.3.3.3.1.

Hypoxia Development

4.3.3.3.2.

4.3.3.3.3.

4.4.

Water Treatment

4.4.1.

Drinking Water Treatment

4.4.1.1.

Coagulation and Flocculation

4.4.1.1.1.

Aluminum Sulfate

4.4.1.1.2.

Ferric Chloride

4.4.1.1.3.

Polymer Coagulants

4.4.1.1.4.

4.4.1.2.

4.4.1.2.1.

Settling Mechanisms

4.4.1.2.2.

Clarifier Design

4.4.1.2.3.

4.4.1.3.

4.4.1.3.1.

Rapid Sand Filtration

4.4.1.3.2.

Slow Sand Filtration

4.4.1.3.3.

Membrane Filtration

4.4.1.4.

4.4.1.4.1.

4.4.1.4.1.1.

4.4.1.4.1.2.

Combined Chlorine

4.4.1.4.1.3.

Disinfection Byproducts

4.4.1.4.2.

4.4.1.4.2.1.

Ozone Generation

4.4.1.4.2.2.

Disinfection Mechanisms

4.4.1.4.2.3.

Byproduct Formation

4.4.1.4.3.

Ultraviolet Disinfection

4.4.1.4.3.1.

UV Dose Requirements

4.4.1.4.3.2.

Lamp Technologies

4.4.2.

Wastewater Treatment

4.4.2.1.

Primary Treatment

4.4.2.1.1.

4.4.2.1.2.

4.4.2.1.3.

Primary Sedimentation

4.4.2.2.

Secondary Treatment

4.4.2.2.1.

Activated Sludge Process

4.4.2.2.1.1.

Aeration Systems

4.4.2.2.1.2.

Microbial Processes

4.4.2.2.1.3.

Sludge Settling

4.4.2.2.2.

Trickling Filters

4.4.2.2.2.1.

Biofilm Formation

4.4.2.2.2.2.

Hydraulic Loading

4.4.2.2.3.

Rotating Biological Contactors

4.4.2.3.

Tertiary Treatment

4.4.2.3.1.

Nutrient Removal

4.4.2.3.1.1.

Biological Nutrient Removal

4.4.2.3.1.2.

Chemical Precipitation

4.4.2.3.2.

Advanced Oxidation Processes

4.4.2.3.2.1.

Ozone-Hydrogen Peroxide

4.4.2.3.2.2.

UV-Hydrogen Peroxide

4.4.2.3.2.3.

Fenton Processes

4.4.2.3.3.

Membrane Processes

4.4.2.3.3.1.

Microfiltration

4.4.2.3.3.2.

Ultrafiltration

4.4.2.3.3.3.

Reverse Osmosis

4.4.2.4.

Sludge Treatment

4.4.2.4.1.

4.4.2.4.2.

4.4.2.4.2.1.

Anaerobic Digestion

4.4.2.4.2.2.

Aerobic Digestion

4.4.2.4.2.3.

Lime Stabilization

4.4.2.4.3.

4.4.2.4.4.

Disposal Options

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5. Chemistry of the Geosphere and Pedosphere