Environmental Biology and Physiology

  1. The Thermal Environment
    1. Principles of Heat Exchange
      1. Conduction
        1. Physical Basis
          1. Fourier's Law
            1. Thermal Conductivity
              1. Temperature Gradients
              2. Biological Examples
                1. Contact with Substrates
                  1. Internal Heat Transfer
                    1. Tissue Thermal Properties
                  2. Convection
                    1. Forced vs. Free Convection
                      1. Wind Effects
                        1. Buoyancy-driven Flow
                          1. Boundary Layer Dynamics
                          2. Environmental Influences
                            1. Air Movement
                              1. Water Currents
                                1. Microhabitat Effects
                              2. Radiation
                                1. Solar and Infrared Radiation
                                  1. Wavelength Characteristics
                                    1. Atmospheric Filtering
                                      1. Daily and Seasonal Variation
                                      2. Absorption and Emission
                                        1. Surface Properties
                                          1. Emissivity
                                            1. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
                                          2. Evaporation
                                            1. Latent Heat of Vaporization
                                              1. Energy Requirements
                                                1. Temperature Dependence
                                                  1. Cooling Efficiency
                                                  2. Environmental Constraints
                                                    1. Humidity Effects
                                                      1. Air Movement
                                                        1. Water Availability
                                                    2. Thermoregulatory Strategies
                                                      1. Endothermy
                                                        1. Mechanisms of Internal Heat Production
                                                          1. Metabolic Heat Generation
                                                            1. Muscle Activity
                                                              1. Brown Adipose Tissue
                                                              2. Costs and Benefits
                                                                1. Energetic Demands
                                                                  1. Thermal Independence
                                                                    1. Activity Advantages
                                                                  2. Ectothermy
                                                                    1. Environmental Dependence
                                                                      1. Temperature Conformity
                                                                        1. Thermal Inertia
                                                                          1. Microhabitat Selection
                                                                          2. Behavioral Thermoregulation
                                                                            1. Basking Behaviors
                                                                              1. Shade Seeking
                                                                                1. Postural Adjustments
                                                                              2. Poikilothermy
                                                                                1. Variability in Body Temperature
                                                                                  1. Temporal Fluctuations
                                                                                    1. Spatial Gradients
                                                                                      1. Tolerance Ranges
                                                                                    2. Homeothermy
                                                                                      1. Maintenance of Stable Body Temperature
                                                                                        1. Narrow Temperature Ranges
                                                                                          1. Regulatory Mechanisms
                                                                                            1. Core vs. Peripheral Temperatures
                                                                                          2. Heterothermy
                                                                                            1. Temporal Heterothermy
                                                                                              1. Daily Torpor
                                                                                                1. Entry and Arousal Patterns
                                                                                                  1. Metabolic Depression
                                                                                                    1. Energy Savings
                                                                                                    2. Hibernation
                                                                                                      1. Seasonal Patterns
                                                                                                        1. Physiological Changes
                                                                                                          1. Arousal Mechanisms
                                                                                                          2. Estivation
                                                                                                            1. Summer Dormancy
                                                                                                              1. Water Conservation
                                                                                                                1. Heat Avoidance
                                                                                                              2. Regional Heterothermy
                                                                                                                1. Countercurrent Heat Exchange
                                                                                                                  1. Vascular Arrangements
                                                                                                                    1. Heat Recovery Systems
                                                                                                                      1. Appendage Warming
                                                                                                                      2. Selective Brain Cooling
                                                                                                                        1. Carotid Rete
                                                                                                                          1. Evaporative Cooling
                                                                                                                            1. Thermal Protection
                                                                                                                      3. Physiological Responses to Cold
                                                                                                                        1. Increasing Heat Production
                                                                                                                          1. Shivering Thermogenesis
                                                                                                                            1. Muscle Activity
                                                                                                                              1. Involuntary Contractions
                                                                                                                                1. Recruitment Patterns
                                                                                                                                  1. Efficiency Factors
                                                                                                                                  2. Energetic Costs
                                                                                                                                    1. ATP Requirements
                                                                                                                                      1. Substrate Utilization
                                                                                                                                        1. Sustainability Limits
                                                                                                                                      2. Non-shivering Thermogenesis
                                                                                                                                        1. Brown Adipose Tissue
                                                                                                                                          1. Uncoupling Proteins
                                                                                                                                            1. Sympathetic Innervation
                                                                                                                                              1. Developmental Changes
                                                                                                                                              2. Hormonal Regulation
                                                                                                                                                1. Thyroid Hormones
                                                                                                                                                  1. Catecholamines
                                                                                                                                                    1. Cortisol Effects
                                                                                                                                                2. Reducing Heat Loss
                                                                                                                                                  1. Insulation
                                                                                                                                                    1. Fur
                                                                                                                                                      1. Density and Length
                                                                                                                                                        1. Seasonal Changes
                                                                                                                                                          1. Air Trapping
                                                                                                                                                          2. Feathers
                                                                                                                                                            1. Down vs. Contour Feathers
                                                                                                                                                              1. Plumage Adjustments
                                                                                                                                                                1. Waterproofing
                                                                                                                                                                2. Blubber
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Thickness Variations
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Thermal Conductivity
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vascular Arrangements
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Vasoconstriction
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Peripheral Blood Flow
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sympathetic Control
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Arteriovenous Anastomoses
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Extremity Cooling
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Countercurrent Heat Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Anatomical Arrangements
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Rete Mirabile
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Concurrent Flow Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Heat Recovery Efficiency
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Coping with Extreme Cold
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Freeze Avoidance
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Supercooling
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Nucleation Prevention
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Supercooling Points
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Limits and Risks
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Antifreeze Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Glycols and Polyols
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Antifreeze Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Concentration Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Freeze Tolerance
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Ice Nucleating Agents
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Controlled Ice Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Extracellular Freezing
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cellular Protection
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Cryoprotectants
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Osmotic Stabilization
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Membrane Protection
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Protein Stabilization
                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Physiological Responses to Heat
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Dissipating Heat
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Evaporative Cooling
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Sweating
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Eccrine Gland Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sweat Composition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Evaporation Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Panting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Respiratory Heat Loss
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Counter-current Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Water Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Gular Fluttering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Throat Oscillations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Avian Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Efficiency Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Vasodilation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Increased Peripheral Blood Flow
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Heat Transfer to Skin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Cardiovascular Adjustments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Blood Pressure Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Behavioral Thermoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Seeking Shade
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Microhabitat Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Temporal Activity Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Social Thermoregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Burrowing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Underground Refugia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Thermal Buffering
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Humidity Benefits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Reducing Heat Gain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Estivation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Metabolic Suppression
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Water Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Arousal Triggers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Daily Torpor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Circadian Timing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Depth of Torpor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Recovery Patterns
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Metabolic Depression
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Suppression of Metabolic Rate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Enzyme Downregulation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cellular Processes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Energy Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Cellular and Molecular Responses to Temperature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Induction and Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Temperature Thresholds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Protein Folding Assistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Cellular Protection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Recovery Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Membrane Fluidity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Homeoviscous Adaptation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Lipid Composition Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cholesterol Content
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Fatty Acid Saturation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Temperature Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Phase Transitions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Permeability Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Protein Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Enzyme Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Thermal Optima
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Temperature-Activity Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Adaptation Temperatures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Kinetic Efficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Denaturation and Stability
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Protein Unfolding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Thermal Limits
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Protective Mechanisms

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Foundational Concepts in Environmental Physiology

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        3. Water and Solute Balance