Endocrinology and Renal Systems

  1. Pathophysiology of Integrated Renal-Endocrine Disorders
    1. Water Balance Disorders
      1. Diabetes Insipidus
        1. Central Diabetes Insipidus
          1. Etiology
            1. Hypothalamic Lesions
              1. Pituitary Surgery
                1. Trauma
                  1. Tumors
                    1. Genetic Causes
                    2. Pathophysiology
                      1. ADH Deficiency
                        1. Osmotic Dysregulation
                          1. Compensatory Mechanisms
                          2. Clinical Manifestations
                            1. Polyuria
                              1. Polydipsia
                                1. Hypernatremia Risk
                                  1. Dehydration
                                  2. Diagnostic Approach
                                    1. Water Deprivation Test
                                      1. Desmopressin Response
                                        1. Plasma ADH Levels
                                          1. Imaging Studies
                                          2. Treatment Options
                                            1. Desmopressin Therapy
                                              1. Dose Optimization
                                                1. Monitoring Parameters
                                              2. Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus
                                                1. Etiology
                                                  1. Genetic Mutations
                                                    1. V2 Receptor Defects
                                                      1. AQP2 Mutations
                                                      2. Acquired Causes
                                                        1. Lithium Toxicity
                                                          1. Hypercalcemia
                                                            1. Hypokalemia
                                                              1. Chronic Kidney Disease
                                                            2. Pathophysiology
                                                              1. Receptor Dysfunction
                                                                1. Aquaporin Defects
                                                                  1. Tubular Resistance
                                                                  2. Clinical Features
                                                                    1. Diagnostic Testing
                                                                      1. Treatment Strategies
                                                                        1. Thiazide Diuretics
                                                                          1. Amiloride
                                                                            1. Dietary Modifications
                                                                        2. Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH Secretion
                                                                          1. Etiology
                                                                            1. CNS Disorders
                                                                              1. Pulmonary Diseases
                                                                                1. Malignancies
                                                                                  1. Medications
                                                                                    1. Postoperative States
                                                                                    2. Pathophysiology
                                                                                      1. Excessive ADH Release
                                                                                        1. Water Retention
                                                                                          1. Hyponatremia Development
                                                                                            1. Volume Expansion
                                                                                            2. Clinical Manifestations
                                                                                              1. Hyponatremia Symptoms
                                                                                                1. Neurological Effects
                                                                                                  1. Severity Grading
                                                                                                  2. Diagnostic Criteria
                                                                                                    1. Laboratory Findings
                                                                                                      1. Exclusion Criteria
                                                                                                        1. Confirmatory Tests
                                                                                                        2. Treatment Approaches
                                                                                                          1. Fluid Restriction
                                                                                                            1. Hypertonic Saline
                                                                                                              1. Vasopressin Antagonists
                                                                                                                1. Underlying Cause Treatment
                                                                                                            2. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Disorders
                                                                                                              1. Primary Hyperaldosteronism
                                                                                                                1. Etiology
                                                                                                                  1. Aldosterone-Producing Adenoma
                                                                                                                    1. Bilateral Adrenal Hyperplasia
                                                                                                                      1. Unilateral Hyperplasia
                                                                                                                        1. Familial Forms
                                                                                                                        2. Pathophysiology
                                                                                                                          1. Autonomous Aldosterone Secretion
                                                                                                                            1. Renin Suppression
                                                                                                                              1. Sodium Retention
                                                                                                                                1. Potassium Loss
                                                                                                                                2. Clinical Features
                                                                                                                                  1. Hypertension
                                                                                                                                    1. Hypokalemia
                                                                                                                                      1. Metabolic Alkalosis
                                                                                                                                        1. Muscle Weakness
                                                                                                                                        2. Diagnostic Workup
                                                                                                                                          1. Screening Tests
                                                                                                                                            1. Confirmatory Tests
                                                                                                                                              1. Subtype Differentiation
                                                                                                                                                1. Imaging Studies
                                                                                                                                                2. Treatment Options
                                                                                                                                                  1. Surgical Management
                                                                                                                                                    1. Medical Management
                                                                                                                                                      1. Monitoring and Follow-up
                                                                                                                                                    2. Secondary Hyperaldosteronism
                                                                                                                                                      1. Etiology
                                                                                                                                                        1. Renovascular Disease
                                                                                                                                                          1. Heart Failure
                                                                                                                                                            1. Liver Disease
                                                                                                                                                              1. Diuretic Use
                                                                                                                                                              2. Pathophysiology
                                                                                                                                                                1. RAAS Activation
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Compensatory Response
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Aldosterone Elevation
                                                                                                                                                                    2. Clinical Assessment
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Management Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                      2. Renal Artery Stenosis
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Etiology
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Atherosclerotic Disease
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Fibromuscular Dysplasia
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Other Causes
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Pathophysiology
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Reduced Renal Perfusion
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Renin Release
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. RAAS Activation
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Hypertension Development
                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Clinical Presentation
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Diagnostic Evaluation
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Treatment Approaches
                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Chronic Kidney Disease Complications
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Anemia of CKD
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Pathogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. EPO Deficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Iron Deficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Inflammation Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Uremic Toxins
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Clinical Manifestations
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Fatigue and Weakness
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Cardiovascular Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Quality of Life Impact
                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Diagnostic Evaluation
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Hemoglobin Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Iron Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. EPO Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Other Parameters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Management Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. EPO Replacement Therapy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Iron Supplementation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Target Hemoglobin Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Monitoring Requirements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. CKD-Mineral and Bone Disorder
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Pathophysiology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Phosphate Retention
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Calcitriol Deficiency
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. FGF23 Elevation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. PTH Elevation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Bone Turnover Abnormalities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Secondary Hyperparathyroidism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Development Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Progressive Nature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Bone Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Cardiovascular Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Bone Disease Manifestations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Osteitis Fibrosa
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Osteomalacia
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Adynamic Bone Disease
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Mixed Disorders
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Vascular Calcification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Pathogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Risk Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Clinical Consequences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Laboratory Abnormalities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Calcium Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Phosphate Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. PTH Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Alkaline Phosphatase
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. FGF23 Levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Management Approaches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Phosphate Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Vitamin D Therapy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Calcimimetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Dietary Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Endocrine Hypertension
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Pheochromocytoma
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Pathophysiology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Catecholamine Excess
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Adrenergic Receptor Activation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Cardiovascular Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Metabolic Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Clinical Manifestations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Hypertensive Episodes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Classic Triad
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Associated Symptoms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Complications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Diagnostic Approach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Biochemical Testing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Imaging Studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Genetic Testing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Treatment Management
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Preoperative Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Surgical Resection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Medical Management
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Cushing's Syndrome
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pathophysiology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Cortisol Excess
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Mineralocorticoid Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cardiovascular Impact
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Clinical Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Diagnostic Testing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Treatment Options
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Hyperaldosteronism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Primary vs Secondary Forms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Pathophysiological Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Clinical Presentations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Therapeutic Approaches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Diabetic Kidney Disease
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Diabetic Nephropathy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Pathogenesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Hyperglycemia Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Advanced Glycation End Products
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Oxidative Stress
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Inflammatory Pathways
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Hemodynamic Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Stages and Progression
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Hyperfiltration Stage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Microalbuminuria Stage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Macroalbuminuria Stage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Declining GFR Stage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. End-Stage Renal Disease
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Clinical Manifestations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Proteinuria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Hypertension
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Edema
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Renal Function Decline
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Risk Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Glycemic Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Blood Pressure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Genetic Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Duration of Diabetes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Management Strategies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Glycemic Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Blood Pressure Management
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. RAAS Blockade
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Lifestyle Modifications
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Novel Therapies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Osmotic Diuresis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Glucose Filtration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Tubular Transport Saturation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Osmotic Water Loss
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Electrolyte Losses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. Clinical Consequences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Volume Depletion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Electrolyte Imbalances
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Hypernatremia Risk
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Management Principles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Glucose Control
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Fluid Replacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Electrolyte Monitoring

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Go to top

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Introduction to Neuroendocrine and Renal Physiology