Endocrinology and Renal Systems

  1. The Kidney as an Endocrine Organ
    1. Renin Production and Secretion
      1. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
        1. Anatomical Components
          1. Juxtaglomerular Cells
            1. Location and Structure
              1. Renin Storage Granules
              2. Macula Densa
                1. Cellular Structure
                  1. Sensing Mechanisms
                  2. Extraglomerular Mesangial Cells
                    1. Location and Function
                      1. Communication Pathways
                  3. Regulation of Renin Release
                    1. Renal Perfusion Pressure
                      1. Baroreceptor Mechanism
                        1. Pressure Sensing
                          1. Response Characteristics
                          2. Sodium Chloride Delivery
                            1. Macula Densa Sensing
                              1. Tubuloglomerular Feedback
                                1. NaCl Transport Mechanisms
                                2. Sympathetic Nervous System
                                  1. Beta-1 Adrenergic Receptors
                                    1. Neural Pathways
                                      1. Catecholamine Effects
                                      2. Hormonal Regulation
                                        1. Angiotensin II Feedback
                                          1. Prostaglandin Effects
                                            1. Other Modulators
                                          2. Renin Biochemistry
                                            1. Renin Structure and Function
                                              1. Substrate Specificity
                                                1. Enzymatic Activity
                                                  1. Plasma Renin Activity vs Concentration
                                                2. Erythropoietin Production
                                                  1. Cellular Source
                                                    1. Peritubular Interstitial Fibroblasts
                                                      1. Anatomical Location
                                                        1. Cellular Characteristics
                                                          1. Transformation in Disease
                                                        2. Regulation of EPO Synthesis
                                                          1. Oxygen Sensing Mechanisms
                                                            1. Hypoxia-Inducible Factors
                                                              1. HIF-1α Structure and Function
                                                                1. HIF-2α Structure and Function
                                                                  1. Oxygen-Dependent Degradation
                                                                  2. Prolyl Hydroxylases
                                                                    1. von Hippel-Lindau Protein
                                                                    2. Transcriptional Control
                                                                      1. EPO Gene Structure
                                                                        1. Hypoxia Response Elements
                                                                          1. Transcription Factor Binding
                                                                          2. Post-transcriptional Regulation
                                                                            1. mRNA Stability
                                                                              1. Translation Control
                                                                            2. EPO Actions
                                                                              1. Bone Marrow Effects
                                                                                1. Erythroid Progenitor Stimulation
                                                                                  1. Prevention of Apoptosis
                                                                                    1. Differentiation Promotion
                                                                                    2. Non-hematopoietic Effects
                                                                                      1. Tissue Protection
                                                                                        1. Angiogenesis
                                                                                          1. Neuroprotection
                                                                                      2. Calcitriol Synthesis
                                                                                        1. Vitamin D Metabolism Overview
                                                                                          1. Vitamin D Sources
                                                                                            1. 25-Hydroxylation in Liver
                                                                                              1. 1α-Hydroxylation in Kidney
                                                                                                1. 24-Hydroxylation Pathway
                                                                                                2. Renal 1α-Hydroxylase
                                                                                                  1. Enzyme Characteristics
                                                                                                    1. Cellular Localization
                                                                                                      1. Substrate Requirements
                                                                                                        1. Product Formation
                                                                                                        2. Regulation of Calcitriol Production
                                                                                                          1. Parathyroid Hormone Stimulation
                                                                                                            1. PTH Receptor Signaling
                                                                                                              1. cAMP-Dependent Mechanisms
                                                                                                                1. Transcriptional Effects
                                                                                                                2. Phosphate Regulation
                                                                                                                  1. Low Phosphate Stimulation
                                                                                                                    1. Phosphate Sensing Mechanisms
                                                                                                                      1. Feedback Control
                                                                                                                      2. FGF23 Inhibition
                                                                                                                        1. FGF23 Receptor Signaling
                                                                                                                          1. Klotho Co-receptor
                                                                                                                            1. Suppression Mechanisms
                                                                                                                            2. Calcitriol Feedback
                                                                                                                              1. Negative Feedback Loop
                                                                                                                                1. 24-Hydroxylase Induction
                                                                                                                                  1. Receptor-Mediated Effects
                                                                                                                                2. Calcitriol Actions
                                                                                                                                  1. Intestinal Effects
                                                                                                                                    1. Calcium Absorption Enhancement
                                                                                                                                      1. Phosphate Absorption Enhancement
                                                                                                                                        1. Transporter Regulation
                                                                                                                                        2. Bone Effects
                                                                                                                                          1. Osteoblast Stimulation
                                                                                                                                            1. Osteoclast Regulation
                                                                                                                                              1. Mineralization Promotion
                                                                                                                                              2. Renal Effects
                                                                                                                                                1. Calcium Reabsorption
                                                                                                                                                  1. Phosphate Handling
                                                                                                                                                    1. PTH Suppression
                                                                                                                                                2. Other Renal Hormones
                                                                                                                                                  1. Prostaglandin Production
                                                                                                                                                    1. Cyclooxygenase Pathways
                                                                                                                                                      1. COX-1 Expression
                                                                                                                                                        1. COX-2 Expression
                                                                                                                                                          1. Substrate Availability
                                                                                                                                                          2. Prostaglandin Types
                                                                                                                                                            1. PGE2 Production and Effects
                                                                                                                                                              1. PGI2 Production and Effects
                                                                                                                                                                1. Thromboxane Production
                                                                                                                                                                2. Physiological Roles
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Renal Blood Flow Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                    1. GFR Modulation
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Tubular Function Effects
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Renin Release Modulation
                                                                                                                                                                      2. Kallikrein-Kinin System
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Kallikrein Production
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Tissue Kallikrein
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Plasma Kallikrein
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Cellular Sources
                                                                                                                                                                              2. Kinin Generation
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Bradykinin Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Kallidin Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Kinin Receptors
                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Physiological Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Vasodilation
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Natriuresis
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Diuresis
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Blood Pressure Regulation
                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Endothelin Production
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Endothelin Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Endothelin Receptors
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Physiological Effects
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Pathophysiological Roles

                                                                                                                                                                                              Previous

                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Introduction to Neuroendocrine and Renal Physiology

                                                                                                                                                                                              Go to top

                                                                                                                                                                                              Next

                                                                                                                                                                                              3. The Kidney as a Target for Hormones