Crop Science and Production

5.

Crop Production and Management Systems

5.1.

Land Preparation and Tillage

5.1.1.

Objectives of Tillage

5.1.1.1.

Seedbed Preparation

5.1.1.2.

5.1.1.3.

Residue Management

5.1.1.4.

5.1.2.

Primary Tillage

5.1.2.1.

5.1.2.1.1.

5.1.2.1.2.

5.1.2.1.3.

5.1.2.2.

5.1.2.3.

5.1.3.

Secondary Tillage

5.1.3.1.

5.1.3.1.1.

5.1.3.1.2.

Spring-Tooth Harrow

5.1.3.1.3.

Spike-Tooth Harrow

5.1.3.2.

5.1.3.3.

Field Finishing

5.1.4.

Conservation Tillage

5.1.4.1.

5.1.4.1.1.

5.1.4.1.2.

5.1.4.1.3.

Benefits and Challenges

5.1.4.2.

5.1.4.2.1.

5.1.4.3.

5.1.4.3.1.

System Components

5.1.4.3.2.

Management Considerations

5.1.4.4.

Reduced Tillage

5.1.4.4.1.

Minimum Tillage

5.1.4.4.2.

5.1.5.

Tillage Effects

5.1.5.1.

Soil Physical Properties

5.1.5.2.

Soil Biological Activity

5.1.5.3.

Water Relations

5.1.5.4.

Nutrient Availability

5.2.

Planting and Establishment

5.2.1.

Seed Selection and Preparation

5.2.1.1.

Variety Selection

5.2.1.2.

Seed Quality Assessment

5.2.1.3.

5.2.1.4.

5.2.2.

Planting Methods

5.2.2.1.

5.2.2.1.1.

Hand Broadcasting

5.2.2.1.2.

Mechanical Broadcasting

5.2.2.2.

5.2.2.2.1.

5.2.2.2.2.

Precision Planters

5.2.2.3.

5.2.2.3.1.

Seedling Production

5.2.2.3.2.

Transplanting Techniques

5.2.2.4.

5.2.2.4.1.

Advantages and Disadvantages

5.2.2.4.2.

5.2.3.

Planting Parameters

5.2.3.1.

5.2.3.1.1.

Factors Affecting Depth

5.2.3.1.2.

Crop-Specific Requirements

5.2.3.2.

5.2.3.2.1.

5.2.3.2.2.

Plant Population

5.2.3.2.3.

Factors Affecting Spacing

5.2.3.3.

5.2.3.3.1.

Calculation Methods

5.2.3.3.2.

Adjustment Factors

5.2.4.

Germination and Emergence

5.2.4.1.

Environmental Requirements

5.2.4.1.1.

5.2.4.1.2.

5.2.4.1.3.

5.2.4.1.4.

5.2.4.2.

Factors Affecting Emergence

5.2.4.2.1.

5.2.4.2.2.

5.2.4.2.3.

Soil Conditions

5.2.4.3.

Stand Establishment

5.2.4.3.1.

Uniform Emergence

5.2.4.3.2.

Plant Population Assessment

5.3.

Water Management and Irrigation

5.3.1.

Crop Water Requirements

5.3.1.1.

Evapotranspiration

5.3.1.1.1.

Reference Evapotranspiration

5.3.1.1.2.

Crop Coefficients

5.3.1.1.3.

Calculation Methods

5.3.1.2.

Water Use Efficiency

5.3.1.2.1.

Irrigation Efficiency

5.3.1.2.2.

Water Productivity

5.3.1.3.

Critical Growth Stages

5.3.1.3.1.

Water-Sensitive Periods

5.3.1.3.2.

Deficit Irrigation

5.3.2.

Irrigation Scheduling

5.3.2.1.

Soil-Based Methods

5.3.2.1.1.

Soil Moisture Monitoring

5.3.2.1.2.

5.3.2.1.3.

Electrical Resistance Blocks

5.3.2.2.

Plant-Based Methods

5.3.2.2.1.

Leaf Water Potential

5.3.2.2.2.

Stomatal Conductance

5.3.2.2.3.

Canopy Temperature

5.3.2.3.

Weather-Based Methods

5.3.2.3.1.

Evapotranspiration Estimates

5.3.2.3.2.

Water Balance Models

5.3.3.

Irrigation Systems

5.3.3.1.

Surface Irrigation

5.3.3.1.1.

Basin Irrigation

5.3.3.1.2.

Border Irrigation

5.3.3.1.3.

Furrow Irrigation

5.3.3.1.4.

Flood Irrigation

5.3.3.1.5.

Design Considerations

5.3.3.1.6.

Management Practices

5.3.3.2.

Sprinkler Irrigation

5.3.3.2.1.

Solid Set Systems

5.3.3.2.2.

Portable Systems

5.3.3.2.3.

Center Pivot Systems

5.3.3.2.4.

Linear Move Systems

5.3.3.2.5.

Design and Management

5.3.3.3.

Micro-Irrigation

5.3.3.3.1.

Drip Irrigation

5.3.3.3.1.1.

System Components

5.3.3.3.1.2.

Design Principles

5.3.3.3.1.3.

Management Practices

5.3.3.3.2.

Micro-Sprinkler Systems

5.3.3.3.3.

Subsurface Drip Irrigation

5.3.3.4.

System Selection

5.3.3.4.1.

Crop Requirements

5.3.3.4.2.

Soil Characteristics

5.3.3.4.3.

5.3.3.4.4.

Economic Considerations

5.3.4.

5.3.4.1.

Need for Drainage

5.3.4.1.1.

Waterlogging Effects

5.3.4.1.2.

Salt Accumulation

5.3.4.2.

Drainage Methods

5.3.4.2.1.

Surface Drainage

5.3.4.2.1.1.

5.3.4.2.1.2.

Surface Ditches

5.3.4.2.2.

Subsurface Drainage

5.3.4.2.2.1.

5.3.4.2.2.2.

5.3.4.3.

Drainage Design

5.3.4.3.1.

Spacing and Depth

5.3.4.3.2.

Outlet Requirements

5.3.5.

5.3.5.1.

Irrigation Water Quality

5.3.5.1.1.

5.3.5.1.2.

5.3.5.1.3.

5.3.5.1.4.

5.3.5.2.

Water Treatment

5.3.5.2.1.

5.3.5.2.2.

Chemical Treatment

5.3.5.2.3.

Biological Treatment

5.4.

Nutrient Management

5.4.1.

Nutrient Requirements

5.4.1.1.

Crop Nutrient Uptake

5.4.1.1.1.

Uptake Patterns

5.4.1.1.2.

Nutrient Removal

5.4.1.2.

Soil Nutrient Supply

5.4.1.2.1.

Available Nutrients

5.4.1.2.2.

Nutrient Release

5.4.1.3.

Nutrient Balance

5.4.1.3.1.

Inputs and Outputs

5.4.1.3.2.

Nutrient Budgets

5.4.2.

Fertilizer Application

5.4.2.1.

Application Methods

5.4.2.1.1.

5.4.2.1.1.1.

Uniform Distribution

5.4.2.1.1.2.

5.4.2.1.2.

5.4.2.1.2.1.

Starter Fertilizers

5.4.2.1.2.2.

5.4.2.1.3.

Foliar Application

5.4.2.1.3.1.

Spray Solutions

5.4.2.1.3.2.

Application Timing

5.4.2.1.4.

5.4.2.1.4.1.

Injection Systems

5.4.2.1.4.2.

5.4.2.2.

Application Timing

5.4.2.2.1.

Pre-Plant Application

5.4.2.2.2.

At-Plant Application

5.4.2.2.3.

Post-Plant Application

5.4.2.2.4.

Split Applications

5.4.2.3.

Application Rates

5.4.2.3.1.

Rate Calculations

5.4.2.3.2.

Adjustment Factors

5.4.3.

Integrated Nutrient Management

5.4.3.1.

Combining Organic and Inorganic Sources

5.4.3.2.

Nutrient Synchronization

5.4.3.3.

Site-Specific Management

5.4.3.4.

Precision Nutrient Management

5.4.4.

Nutrient Use Efficiency

5.4.4.1.

Factors Affecting Efficiency

5.4.4.2.

Enhancement Strategies

5.4.4.2.1.

Slow-Release Fertilizers

5.4.4.2.2.

5.4.4.2.3.

Placement Techniques

5.5.

Cropping Systems

5.5.1.

5.5.1.1.

Definition and Characteristics

5.5.1.2.

5.5.1.2.1.

5.5.1.2.2.

5.5.1.2.3.

Economies of Scale

5.5.1.3.

5.5.1.3.1.

5.5.1.3.2.

Soil Degradation

5.5.1.3.3.

Risk Concentration

5.5.2.

Multiple Cropping

5.5.2.1.

5.5.2.1.1.

Row Intercropping

5.5.2.1.2.

Strip Intercropping

5.5.2.1.3.

Mixed Intercropping

5.5.2.1.4.

Relay Intercropping

5.5.2.2.

Sequential Cropping

5.5.2.2.1.

Double Cropping

5.5.2.2.2.

Triple Cropping

5.5.2.3.

Companion Planting

5.5.2.3.1.

Beneficial Interactions

5.5.2.3.2.

Pest Management

5.5.3.

5.5.3.1.

Principles of Rotation

5.5.3.1.1.

Nutrient Cycling

5.5.3.1.2.

Pest Management

5.5.3.1.3.

5.5.3.2.

Rotation Planning

5.5.3.2.1.

5.5.3.2.2.

5.5.3.2.3.

Economic Considerations

5.5.3.3.

Types of Rotations

5.5.3.3.1.

Cereal-Legume Rotations

5.5.3.3.2.

Cash Crop Rotations

5.5.3.3.3.

Forage-Based Rotations

5.5.4.

5.5.4.1.

Cover Crop Functions

5.5.4.1.1.

Soil Protection

5.5.4.1.2.

Nutrient Cycling

5.5.4.1.3.

Weed Suppression

5.5.4.1.4.

Pest Management

5.5.4.2.

Cover Crop Selection

5.5.4.2.1.

5.5.4.2.2.

5.5.4.2.3.

5.5.4.2.4.

5.5.4.3.

Management Practices

5.5.4.3.1.

5.5.4.3.2.

5.5.4.3.3.

Integration with Cash Crops

5.5.5.

5.5.5.1.

Types of Fallow

5.5.5.1.1.

5.5.5.1.2.

Chemical Fallow

5.5.5.1.3.

Ecological Fallow

5.5.5.2.

Functions of Fallow

5.5.5.2.1.

Moisture Conservation

5.5.5.2.2.

Nutrient Accumulation

5.5.5.2.3.

Pest Management

5.5.5.3.

Fallow Management

5.5.5.3.1.

5.5.5.3.2.

Soil Conservation

5.5.5.3.3.

Nutrient Management

5.5.6.

Agroforestry Systems

5.5.6.1.

5.5.6.2.

5.5.6.3.

5.5.6.4.

Benefits and Challenges

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6. Integrated Pest Management