Climatology

Climatology is the scientific study of climate, defined as the average weather conditions over extended periods, typically 30 years or more. This discipline examines the complex interactions within the Earth's climate system—encompassing the atmosphere, hydrosphere (oceans), cryosphere (ice), land surface, and biosphere—to understand the patterns, variability, and long-term changes in regional and global climates. Climatologists analyze historical data and investigate the causes of climate change, including both natural drivers like volcanic activity and solar cycles, and anthropogenic influences such as greenhouse gas emissions, in order to model and project future climate scenarios.

1. Introduction to Climatology
   1. Defining Climate and Weather
      1. Distinction Between Climate and Weather
      2. Timescales and Averages
         1. Climate Normals
         2. Periods of Record
      3. Statistical Properties of Weather
         1. Mean, Median, and Mode
         2. Variability and Standard Deviation
         3. Extremes and Anomalies
   2. History of Climatology as a Science
      1. Early Observations and Records
      2. Development of Meteorological Instruments
      3. Emergence of Modern Climatology
      4. Key Historical Figures
   3. Sub-disciplines of Climatology
      1. Paleoclimatology
         1. Study of Past Climates
         2. Methods and Tools
      2. Physical Climatology
         1. Physical Processes in the Climate System
      3. Dynamic Climatology
         1. Atmospheric Dynamics and Circulation
      4. Applied Climatology
         1. Practical Applications in Society
      5. Regional Climatology
      6. Urban Climatology
      7. Synoptic Climatology
      8. Bioclimatology
      9. Hydroclimatology