Climatology

3.

Components of the Climate System

3.1.

3.1.1.

Composition and Structure

3.1.1.1.

3.1.1.1.1.

3.1.1.1.2.

3.1.1.1.3.

3.1.1.2.

3.1.1.2.1.

3.1.1.2.2.

3.1.1.2.3.

3.1.1.3.

Atmospheric Layers

3.1.1.3.1.

3.1.1.3.1.1.

Weather Processes

3.1.1.3.1.2.

Temperature Profile

3.1.1.3.2.

3.1.1.3.2.1.

3.1.1.3.2.2.

Temperature Inversion

3.1.1.3.3.

3.1.1.3.3.1.

Characteristics

3.1.1.3.3.2.

Meteors and Noctilucent Clouds

3.1.1.3.4.

3.1.1.3.4.1.

Solar Radiation Absorption

3.1.1.3.4.2.

Aurora Formation

3.1.2.

Atmospheric Pressure and Wind Systems

3.1.2.1.

Pressure Fundamentals

3.1.2.1.1.

Barometric Pressure

3.1.2.1.2.

Pressure Gradients

3.1.2.2.

High and Low-Pressure Cells

3.1.2.2.1.

3.1.2.2.2.

3.1.2.2.3.

Pressure System Movement

3.1.2.3.

Global Pressure Belts

3.1.2.3.1.

3.1.2.3.2.

Subtropical High

3.1.2.3.3.

3.1.2.3.4.

3.1.2.4.

Prevailing Winds

3.1.2.4.1.

3.1.2.4.2.

3.1.2.4.3.

Polar Easterlies

3.1.2.5.

Coriolis Effect

3.1.2.5.1.

Earth's Rotation Impact

3.1.2.5.2.

Geostrophic Wind

3.1.3.

General Atmospheric Circulation

3.1.3.1.

Three-Cell Model

3.1.3.1.1.

3.1.3.1.2.

3.1.3.1.3.

3.1.3.2.

Convergence and Divergence Zones

3.1.3.2.1.

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

3.1.3.2.2.

Subtropical Convergence

3.1.3.3.

3.1.3.3.1.

Subtropical Jet Stream

3.1.3.3.2.

Polar Front Jet Stream

3.1.3.3.3.

Characteristics and Locations

3.1.3.3.4.

Influence on Weather Patterns

3.1.4.

Monsoon Systems

3.1.4.1.

3.1.4.2.

African Monsoon

3.1.4.3.

North American Monsoon

3.1.5.

Role of Clouds in Climate

3.1.5.1.

Cloud Formation Processes

3.1.5.2.

Cloud Types and Classification

3.1.5.2.1.

3.1.5.2.2.

3.1.5.2.3.

3.1.5.3.

Cloud Radiative Effects

3.1.5.3.1.

Shortwave Reflection

3.1.5.3.2.

Longwave Absorption

3.1.5.4.

Cloud Feedbacks

3.1.5.4.1.

Positive Feedbacks

3.1.5.4.2.

Negative Feedbacks

3.2.

The Hydrosphere

3.2.1.

The Global Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

3.2.1.1.

Evaporation and Transpiration

3.2.1.1.1.

Ocean Evaporation

3.2.1.1.2.

Land Surface Evaporation

3.2.1.1.3.

Plant Transpiration

3.2.1.2.

Condensation and Precipitation

3.2.1.2.1.

Cloud Formation

3.2.1.2.2.

Precipitation Types

3.2.1.2.3.

Precipitation Patterns

3.2.1.3.

Runoff and Infiltration

3.2.1.3.1.

3.2.1.3.2.

Groundwater Recharge

3.2.1.3.3.

3.2.1.4.

Storage in Oceans, Lakes, and Groundwater

3.2.1.4.1.

Ocean Water Storage

3.2.1.4.2.

Freshwater Reservoirs

3.2.1.4.3.

Residence Times

3.2.2.

Oceans as a Climate Regulator

3.2.2.1.

Heat Storage and Transport

3.2.2.1.1.

Specific Heat Capacity of Water

3.2.2.1.2.

Seasonal Heat Storage

3.2.2.1.3.

Meridional Heat Transport

3.2.2.2.

Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions

3.2.2.2.1.

Sea Surface Temperature (SST)

3.2.2.2.2.

Air-Sea Gas Exchange

3.2.2.2.3.

Evaporation and Precipitation

3.2.3.

Major Ocean Currents

3.2.3.1.

Surface Currents (Wind-Driven)

3.2.3.1.1.

3.2.3.1.1.1.

Subtropical Gyres

3.2.3.1.1.2.

3.2.3.1.2.

Equatorial Currents

3.2.3.1.3.

Western Boundary Currents

3.2.3.1.3.1.

3.2.3.1.3.2.

Kuroshio Current

3.2.3.1.4.

Eastern Boundary Currents

3.2.3.2.

Thermohaline Circulation (Global Conveyor Belt)

3.2.3.2.1.

Deep Water Formation

3.2.3.2.1.1.

North Atlantic Deep Water

3.2.3.2.1.2.

Antarctic Bottom Water

3.2.3.2.2.

Upwelling and Downwelling

3.2.3.2.3.

Meridional Overturning Circulation

3.2.4.

Ocean Properties

3.2.4.1.

Temperature Structure

3.2.4.2.

Salinity Distribution

3.2.4.3.

Density Stratification

3.3.

3.3.1.

Components of the Cryosphere

3.3.1.1.

Ice Sheets and Glaciers

3.3.1.1.1.

Antarctic Ice Sheet

3.3.1.1.2.

Greenland Ice Sheet

3.3.1.1.3.

Mountain Glaciers

3.3.1.1.4.

3.3.1.2.

3.3.1.2.1.

3.3.1.2.2.

Antarctic Sea Ice

3.3.1.2.3.

Seasonal Variations

3.3.1.3.

3.3.1.3.1.

Continuous Permafrost

3.3.1.3.2.

Discontinuous Permafrost

3.3.1.3.3.

3.3.1.4.

3.3.1.4.1.

3.3.1.4.2.

Snow Water Equivalent

3.3.1.4.3.

Snowpack Dynamics

3.3.2.

Role in Climate Regulation

3.3.2.1.

Ice-Albedo Feedback

3.3.2.1.1.

Surface Reflectivity Changes

3.3.2.1.2.

Temperature Amplification

3.3.2.2.

Freshwater Storage and Sea Level

3.3.2.2.1.

Ice Sheet Mass Balance

3.3.2.2.2.

Glacier Contributions

3.3.2.3.

Seasonal and Long-Term Changes

3.3.2.3.1.

3.3.2.3.2.

Decadal Variations

3.3.2.3.3.

Climate Change Impacts

3.4.

The Lithosphere (Land Surface)

3.4.1.

Influence of Topography on Climate

3.4.1.1.

Orographic Lift and Rain Shadows

3.4.1.1.1.

Windward vs. Leeward Effects

3.4.1.1.2.

Precipitation Enhancement

3.4.1.2.

Altitude Effects

3.4.1.2.1.

Temperature Lapse Rate

3.4.1.2.2.

Pressure Changes

3.4.1.3.

Slope and Aspect

3.4.1.3.1.

Solar Radiation Exposure

3.4.1.3.2.

Microclimate Variations

3.4.2.

Land Surface Characteristics

3.4.2.1.

3.4.2.1.1.

Soil Water Content

3.4.2.1.2.

Evapotranspiration Control

3.4.2.2.

Vegetation Cover

3.4.2.2.1.

Forest Canopy Effects

3.4.2.2.2.

Grassland Characteristics

3.4.2.2.3.

Desert Surfaces

3.4.2.3.

Surface Roughness

3.4.2.3.1.

Aerodynamic Properties

3.4.2.3.2.

Wind Speed Modification

3.4.2.4.

Urban Heat Island Effect

3.4.2.4.1.

Temperature Enhancement

3.4.2.4.2.

Surface Material Properties

3.4.3.

Land-Atmosphere Interactions

3.4.3.1.

Surface Energy Balance

3.4.3.2.

Boundary Layer Processes

3.4.3.3.

Feedback Mechanisms

3.5.

3.5.1.

The Carbon Cycle

3.5.1.1.

Photosynthesis and Respiration

3.5.1.1.1.

Primary Productivity

3.5.1.1.2.

Plant Respiration

3.5.1.1.3.

Soil Respiration

3.5.1.2.

Carbon Sequestration

3.5.1.2.1.

Terrestrial Carbon Storage

3.5.1.2.2.

Ocean Carbon Uptake

3.5.1.3.

Role of Terrestrial and Marine Ecosystems

3.5.1.3.1.

Forest Carbon Dynamics

3.5.1.3.2.

Ocean Carbon Pump

3.5.2.

Biogeochemical Cycles

3.5.2.1.

3.5.2.1.1.

Nitrogen Fixation

3.5.2.1.2.

Nitrification and Denitrification

3.5.2.2.

Phosphorus Cycle

3.5.2.2.1.

Weathering and Erosion

3.5.2.2.2.

Biological Uptake

3.5.2.3.

3.5.2.3.1.

Atmospheric Sulfur Compounds

3.5.2.3.2.

Marine Sulfur Emissions

3.5.3.

Human Impact on the Biosphere

3.5.3.1.

Land Use Change

3.5.3.1.1.

3.5.3.1.2.

Agricultural Expansion

3.5.3.2.

Biodiversity Loss

3.5.3.2.1.

Species Extinction

3.5.3.2.2.

Habitat Fragmentation

3.5.3.3.

Invasive Species

3.5.3.3.1.

Ecosystem Disruption

3.5.3.3.2.

Climate Interactions

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4. Climate Classification